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THE   COMMUNITY' 


AND 


THE   CITIZEN 


BY 


ARTHUR   WILLIAM    DUNN 

SPEaALIST    IN     CfVIC     EDUCATION     XTNITED     STATES 

BUREAU    OF    EDUCATION,   FORMERLY    DIRECTOR    OF 

Cn-ICS   IN   THE   INDIANAPOLIS  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 


REVISED   AND  ENLARGED 


D.   C.    HEATH    &   CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1907  and  1914, 
By  D.   C.   heath  &  CO. 


PREFACE 

The  important  changes  in  our  community  life,  and  especially  in  our 
methods  of  self-government,  that  have  occurred  during  the  seven  years 
since  the  present  volume  was  first  published,  have  made  a  revision 
desirable.  In  no  particular,  however,  has  the  original  point  of  view 
been  departed  from,  nor  the  method  of  presenting  the  subject  modified. 
The  soundness  of  a  point  of  view  and  of  a  method  of  elementary  in- 
struction in  citizenship,  which  were  novel  seven  years  ago,  has  been 
abundantly  confirmed  by  their  wide  acceptance  and  by  visible  results 
in  the  life  of  pupils  and  of  communities.  The  only  justification  for  the 
book,  in  its  original  or  revised  form,  is  in  its  point  of  view  and  method. 
It  will  be  successful  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  in  proportion  as  they 
are  realized  in  the  work  of  the  classroom. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  this  fact,  advantage  has  been  taken  of 
the  opportunity  offered  by  revision  to  reorganize  and  supplement  the 
matter  in  the  original  "  Preface  "  and  ''  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher,"  as 
an  Introduction  on  "Aims  and  Methods,"  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be 
of  service  to  the  teacher  who  is  seeking  to  make  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion in  citizenship  more  effective. 

In  the  preface  to  the  original  edition  the  author  acknowledged  with 
gratitude  the  invaluable  assistance  derived,  in  the  preparation  of  the 
book,  from  the  test  to  which  it  was  put,  in  a  preliminary  form,  by  a 
year's  use  in  the  schools  of  Indianapolis.  He  had  the  benefit  of  the 
practical  experience,  and  the  searching  but  sympathetic  criticism,  of 
thirty  or  forty  teachers  who  were  daily  using  the  text  in  their  classes? 
In  addition  to  this,  he  now  wishes  to  recognize  the  particular  value,  of 
which  he  has  become  fully  conscious  only  with  the  lapse  of  time,  of  the 
spontaneous  and  frank,  though  unconscious,  criticism  of  some  twelve 
hundred  pupils  in  those  classes,  as  expressed  in  their  daily  reactions  to 
their  civics  work.  The  best  test  of  a  method  of  instruction  is  in  the 
response  of  the  pupils  to  it.  Such  success  as  the  book  has  enjoyed  is 
due  in  large  measure  to  these  two  sources  of  suggestion,  together  with 
the  cordial  cooperation  of  Dr.  Calvin  N.  Kendall,  then  Superintendent 


iv  PREFACE 

of  the  Indianapolis  schools,  and  now  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
New  Jersey. 

The  author  would  also  again  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  Dr. 
George  E.  Vincent,  formerly  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  now  Presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  and  to  Dr.  Albion  W.  Small, 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  for  the  first  suggestion  of  method  of 
approaching  the  subject  in  their  book,  "  An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Society,"  and  in  courses  taken  with  them  in  the  University ;  and  to 
Dr.  Henry  Suzzallo,  then  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  now 
of  Teachers  College,  New  York,  and  to  Professor  Henry  E.  Bourne, 
of  Western  Reserve  University,  for  critical  reading  of  the  original 
manuscript. 

ARTHUR  WILLIAM   DUNN. 

Washington,  September  i,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

PACB 

Introduction  for  Teachers:   Aims  and  Methods       .        .      vii 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Beginning  of  a  Community        .        .        .        .  i 

II.  What  is  a  Community?        ...                 .        .  7 

III.  The  Site  of  the  Co.m.munity 10 

IV.  What  the  People  in  Communities  are  Seeking      .  16 
V.  The  Family 22 

VI.     The  Home  and  the  Community  ....      28 

VII.     The  Making  of  Americans 36 

VIII.     How  THE  Relations  between  the  People  and  the 

Land  are  made  Permanent  and  Definite    .  47 

IX.     How  the  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Desire  for  Health 58 

X.     How  the  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  protect 

his  Life  and  Property 71 

XI.     The  REL.A.T10N   between   the  Community   and   the 

Citizen  in  Business  Life 88 

XII.     How  THE  Government  aids  the  Citizen   by   Con- 
trolling Business  Relations 98 

XIII.  How  THE   Community   aids  the  Citizen  in  Trans- 

portation AND  Communication       ....     107 

XIV.  Waste  and  Saving    ' 123 

XV.     How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to   satisfy 

his  Desire  for  Knowledge -135 

XVI.     How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Desire  for  Beautiful  Surroundings      .         .152 


Vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PACK 

XVII.    How  THE  Community  aids  the  Citizen  to  satisfy 

HIS  Religious  Desire 169 

XVIII.     What  the  Community  does  for  those  who  can- 
not OR  WILL  NOT   contribute    TO    ITS    PROGRESS        1 73 

XIX.     How  THE  Citizens  of  a  Community  govern  Them- 
selves         181 

XX.     How    our    Methods    of    Self-government    are 

changing 200 

XXI.     The  Government  of  Rural  Communities:   Town- 
ship and  County 217 

XXII.     The  Government  of  the  City         ....  229 

XXIII.  The  Government  of  the  State      ....  242 

XXIV.  The  Government  of  the  Nation    ....  252 
XXV.     How  the  Expenses  of  Government  are  Met        .  268 

Appendix 

I.     The  Constitution  of  the  United  States   ....  281 
II.     Table  showing  the  Number  of  Homes  owned  and  the 

Number  rented  in  Cities 299 

III.     Immigration  Tables 300 

Index 305 


INTRODUCTION  FOR  TEACHERS, 

Alius  and  Methods 

The  justification  and  aim  of  The  Community  and  the  Citizen 
were  stated,  in  the  preface  of  the  original  edition,  in  these  words  from 
Professor  Dewey's  Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education  : 

"The  social  work  of  the  school  is  often  limited  to  training  for  citizen- 
ship, and  citizenship  is  then  interpreted  in  a  narrow  sense  as  meaning 
capacity  to  vote  intelligently,  a  disposition  to  obey  laws,  etc.  ...  The 
child  is  to  be  not  only  a  voter  and  a  subject  of  law ;  he  is  also  to  be 
a  member  of  a  family-  .  .  .  He  is  to  be  a  worker,  engaged  in  some 
occupation  which  will  be  of  use  to  society  and  which  will  maintain  his 
own  independence  and  self-respect.  He  is  to  be  a  member  of  some 
particular  neighborhood  and  community,  and  must  contribute  to  the 
decencies  and  graces  of  civilization  wherever  he  is.  .  .  .  To  suppose 
...  that  a  good  citizen  is  anything  more  than  a  thoroughly  efficient 
and  serviceable  member  of  society  ...  is  a  cramped  superstition  which 
it  is  hoped  may  soon  disappear  from  educational  discussion.  .  .  . 
Training  for  citizenship  is  formal  and  nominal  unless  it  develops  the 
power  of  observation,  analysis,  and  inference  with  respect  to  what 
makes  up  a  social  situation  and  the  agencies  through  which  it  is 
modified." 

This  broad  view  of  citizenship,  and  the  conviction  that  the  chief  busi- 
ness of  the  school  is  to  train  for  citizenship  in  this  sense,  are  controlling 
factors  in  the  development  of  public  education  to-day.  We  hear  much 
of  "  socializing  "  the  work  of  the  school,  of  adapting  it  to  the  needs 
of  the  child  as  a  member  of  the  community.  The  growing  tendency  to 
deal  with  pupils  as  individuals  instead  of  en  masse  marks  an  attempt  to 
help  each  one  to  find  his  proper  place  in  the  community.  The  increas- 
ing attention  to  the  physical  well-being  of  pupils,  vocational  training, 
school  gardening,  the  reorganization  of  rural  schools,  and  most  of  the 
other  important  recent  developments  in  the  public  schools,  aim  at  a 


viii  INTRODUCTION   FOR   TEACHERS 

more  efficient  citizenship  on  the  part  of  a  larger  proportion  of  those 
who  attend  school.  Dr.  F.  M.  McMurry,  of  Teachers  College,  New 
York,  has  ventured  to  judge  the  efficiency  of  all  teaching  on  the  basis 
of-standards  of  purely  social  import  (see  McMurry,  "  Elementary  School 
Standards,"  World  Book  Company). 

While  the  work  of  the  school  in  training  for  citizenship  is  thus  by  no 
means  limited  to  instruction  under  the  name  of  "  civics,"  this  does  not 
mean  that  there  is  no  further  need  for  systematic  instruction  in  this 
subject.  It  only  means  that  civics  itself  must  be  "socialized,"  adapted 
more  closely  to  the  needs  of  the  pupil  and  of  the  community,  both  in 
subject-matter  and  in  methods,  in  harmony  with  the  tendency  of  educa- 
tion in  general.  This  book  is  an  attempt  to  help  the  teacher  to  accom- 
plish this.  But  even  if  the  author  were  completely  successful  in  his 
task,  the  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  still  depends  upon  the  teacher 
more  than  upon  the  book. 

If  civics  instruction  is  to  be  vital,  the  object  of  study  must  be,  not  the 
pages  of  the  text-book,  but  the  actual  community  of  which  the  pupil 
is  a  member.  The  text  is  designed  to  be  a  guide  to  the  facts  and  rela- 
tions of  the  pupil's  own  community  life,  and  an  interpretation  of  them. 
It  will  facilitate  the  proper  use  of  the  book  in  this  respect,  if  the  teacher 
will  restate  the  titles  of  the  chapters  in  terms  of  the  community  with 
which  the  pupils  are  familiar.  Thus,  the  title  of  chapter  I,  "The 
Beginning  of  a  Community,"  may  be  restated  for  the  pupils  of  Browns- 
ville, Maryland  (let  us  say),  as  "The  Beginning  of  the  Community 
of  Brownsville,"  or  "of  Maryland."  The  title  of  chapter  IX  may  like- 
wise be  restated,  "  How  Brownsville  (or  Maryland)  Aids  her  Citizens 
to  Satisfy  their  Desire  for  Health."  This  may  be  done  for  many  of  the 
chapters  of  the  book,  and  will  force  comparison  between  the  statements 
of  the  text  and  the  real  facts  relating  to  "  Brownsville." 

The  same  thing  should  be  done  with  the  topics  at  the  ends  of  the 
chapters.  These  are  designed  to  direct  the  study  to  the  actual  com- 
munity, and  to  keep  the  text  related  always  to  the  realities  by  which 
the  pupil  is  surrounded.  "Whence  does*'  Brownsville  '  get  its  author- 
ity to  add  to  its  territory  ?  "  is  more  effective  than  "  Whence  does  '  the 
city'  get  its  authority,"  etc.  The  topics  given  are  only  suggestive; 
others  should  often  be  substituted  to  fit  the  needs  of  the  class  and  the 
conditions  of  the  immediate  community.  Informal  discussions  of  topics 
are  often  better  than  formal  reports  by  individual  pupils,  although  the 
latter  have  their  place      The  community  spirit  should  be  maintained 


AIMS    AND    METHODS  ix 

in  the  conduct  of  the  class.  While  one  group  of  pupils  is  working 
cooperatively  on  one  topic  or  set  of  topics,  another  group  should  be 
attacking  other  topics.  Let  each  one  acquire  a  sense  of  responsibility 
for  a  specific  contribution  to  the  progress  of  the  class-community. 

Materials  are  not  always  easily  available  to  furnish  an  answer  to  some 
of  the  topics,  or  to  questions  that  arise  in  the  course  of  the  study. 
This  should  not  be  discouraging.  A  great  many  questions  in  real  civic 
life  have  not  yet  been  answered.  The  fact  that  a  question  cannot  ije 
answered  does  not  destroy  its  usefulness.  It  is  worth  a  great  deal  to 
discover  that  an  important  question  exists.  This  is  the  first  step  in 
civic  progress.  Of  course  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  answer  it,  or 
to  show  why  it  cannot  be  answered.  Here  is  what  happened  in  one 
case  : 

The  teachers  of  civics  were  at  first  greatly  disturbed  because  no 
printed  material  was  available  to  enable  the  pupils  or  teachers  to  answer 
some  apparently  simple  questions  about  the  water  supply  of  their  city. 
It  was  not  difficult  to  show,  by  discussion,  that  the  questions  were  of 
real  importance  to  the  community.  The  pupils  were  asked  to  consult 
parents  and  friends  on  the  subject,  the  result  being  to  show  that  they 
also  were  ignorant  in  regard  to  this  important  matter.  The  first  im- 
portant result,  then,  was  to  demonstrate  that  ignorance  prevailed  re- 
garding matters  of  prime  importance  to  the  community.  A  second 
result  was  that  the  school  authorities  took  the  matter  up  with  the  water 
company,  who  prepared  a  complete  story  of  the  development  and  present 
status  of  the  water  supply,  and  provided  guides  to  take  pupils,  teachers, 
and  parents  through  the  power  houses,  filtration  system,  and  other 
parts  of  the  plant,  at  any  time.  The  whole  community  was  educated 
through  the  raising  of  questions  which  at  first  discouraged  teachers 
and  pupils  because  of  a  lack  of  information. 

In  Newark,  N.J.,  the  public  library  has  cooperated  with  the  school 
authorities  in  gathering  and  publishing  a  large  body  of  material  relat- 
ing to  the  civic  life  and  development  of  Newark.  In  Indianapolis  the 
Commercial  Club  cooperated  with  the  board  of  education  in  a  similar 
way.  A  type  of  civics  instruction  in  the  schools  that  leads  a  commu- 
nity to  seek  and  distribute  information  regarding  itself  proves  its  effec- 
tiveness. 

The  type  of  civics  which  this  text-book  represents  has  pretty  gen- 
erally acquired  the  name  of  "  community  civics.''  There  is  danger  of 
some  confusion  of  ideas  about  the  significance  of  this  term.     Com- 


X  INTRODUCTION   FOR   TEACHERS 

munity  civics  does  not  relate  merely  to  the  local  community  (see  chap- 
ter II).  Its  significance  does  not  lie  in  its  geographical  implications, 
but  in  its  implication  of  community  relations,  community  of  interests, 
community  cooperation  through  government  for  the  common  good. 
The  study  of  one's  own  town  may  be  as  lifeless  and  devoid  of  the  spirit 
of  community  civics  as  the  study  of  the  old-time  "civil  government"; 
while  that  spirit  may  be  made  thoroughly  to  infuse  the  study  of  the 
state  and  of  the  nation.  It  will  be  found  that  the  relations  between 
local,  state,  and  national,  and  of  all  three  to  the  interests  of  the  indi- 
vidual, are  constantly  maintained  throughout  the  chapters  of  the  book. 
The  teacher  must  never  forget  the  community  spirit,  even  when  dealing 
with  the  national  government.  One  way  of  helping  to  cultivate  and 
maintain  it  is  to  nourish  the  community  spirit  in  the  conduct  of  the 
class  (see  chapter  XV).  The  illustrative  lessons  given  later  in  the 
Introduction  will  be  suggestive  in  this  connection. 

Those  who  are  bound  by  the  traditions  of  the  old-time,  formal  civil 
government  sometimes  profess  to  see  in  community  civics  an  undue 
subordination  of  government  to  private  social  activities.  It  may  be 
well  to  caution  the  teacher  against  this  false  impression.  Indeed, 
whether  the  impression  be  false  or  not  depends  largely  on  whether 
the  teacher  makes  it  so.  As  government  is  the  chief  means  of  commu- 
nity cooperation,  so  it  is  the  controlling  idea  in  community  civics.  It 
will  be  found  that  "all  roads  lead  to  government"  throughout  this 
book.  What  has  been  attempted  is  to  present  government  in  its  per- 
spective, in  its  relations  to  the  interests  of  the  community  and  of  the 
individual,  even  of  the  pupil.  The  idea  of  government  is  interwoven 
through  every  chapter,  and  the  teacher  should  see  that  it  is  kept  promi- 
nent. The  last  few  chapters  are  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  gov- 
erning machinery.  They  are  intentionally  brief,  for  elementary  pur- 
poses. They  should  be  constantly  related,  during  their  study,  to  what 
has  preceded. 

One  of  the  errors  that  have  persistently  hindered  the  progress  of 
civic  education  is  the  apparent  assumption  that  the  pupil  will  be  a  citi- 
zen only  at  some  future  time.  Even  children  have,  in  simple  form,  the 
.same  civic  interests  from  which  all  community  action  springs,  and 
which  are  the  foundation  of  all  community  arrangements  and  institu- 
tions, including  government.  Every  pupil  has  an  interest  of  some  kind 
in  his  physical  well-being,  in  his  own  personal  safety  and  that  of  his 
home  and  family  possessions,  \n  his  father's  occupation  or  business  or 


AIMS    AND    METHODS  XI 

his  own  future  vocation  (perhaps  in  small  business  enterprises  of  the 
present),  in  the  matter  of  his  education,  in  the  appearance  of  his 
neighborhood,  and  in  social  activities.  These  are  the  very  things  for 
which  government  exists.  What  the  civics  teacher  has  to  do  is  to 
bring  these  real  civic  interests  of  the  pupil  into  the  foreground  of  his 
consciousness,  and  relate  them  to  the  interests  and  activities  of  the 
community  as  a  whole,  and  of  government  as  the  community's  means 
of  cooperation.  The  first  five  chapters  of  the  book  are  designed  to 
establish  this  point  of  view ;  the  remainder  of  the  book  aims  to  carry 
out  the  idea  consistently. 

Civic  education  consists  not  merely  in  acquiring  a  fund  of  informa- 
tion about  one's  community  and  its  government.  On  the  side  of  the 
pupil  it  is  a  process  of  growth  ;  on  the  side  of  the  teacher  it  is  a  process 
of  cultivating  certain  essential  qualities  of  good  citizenship.  Etfective 
civics  instruction  depends  on  a  clear  notion  of  what  these  qualities  are, 
and  the  employment  of  methods  adapted  to  their  cultivation.  The  type 
lessons  given  later  will  illustrate  the  point  made  here ;  but  let  us  first 
see  what  some  of  the  essential  civic  qualities  are  which  civics  instruction 
should  aim  to  cultivate. 

First  in  importance  is  interest  in  one's  civic  relations.  Bad  citizen- 
ship is  more  often  due  to  lack  of  interest  than  to  lack  of  knowledge. 
To  cultivate  an  abiding  civic  interest,  which  is  one  of  the  aims  of  civic 
education,  means  much  more  than  "to  make  the  subject  interesting." 
It  means  to  cultivate  in  the  pupil  a  consciousness  that  these  civic  rela- 
tions are,  now  and  always,  of  vital  moment  to  him. 

Closely  allied  to  interest  is  motive.  But  real  or  apparent  interest 
may  sometimes  lead  to  the  setting  up  of  wrong  motives.  A  group  of 
boys  who  were  studying  their  own  community  from  the  standpoint 
of  cleanliness  and  beauty,  were  "  interested  "  by  the  offer  of  a  prize  to 
the  boy  who  should  bring  in  the  largest  number  of  discarded  tin  cans. 
The  motive  set  up  was  wrong,  and  uncivic  action  resulted.  Some  of 
the  boys  hauled  into  the  city  wagon-loads  of  cans  from  the  city's  dumps! 
Good  citizenship  can  only  grow  out  of  right  motives,  which  it  should  be 
an  aim  of  civic  education  to  cultivate. 

No  one  can  be  effective  in  civic  life  unless  his  "  team  work  "  is  good. 
The  proper  idea  of  government  is  that  of  a  means  of  cooperation  for 
the  common  good.  The  cultivation  of  a  spirit  and  habit  of  cooperation 
should  be  another  aim  of  civic  education. 

Assuming  an  interest  in  civic  affairs,  a  right  motive,  and  a  willing- 


xii  INTRODUCTION   FOR   TEACHERS 

ness  to  work  with  others,  a  man's  citizenship  will  not  even  then  count 
for  much  unless  he  h^i'i  good  judgmetU  when  confronted  by  a  civic  situa- 
tion, or  by  a  choice  of  civic  methods  ;  and  unless  he  displays  mitiath)e 
in  applying  the  methods  to  the  situations.  Civic  education  should 
therefore  cultivate  civic  judgment  and  civic  initiative. 

The  only  test  that  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  applying  to  our  civics 
teaching  in  the  past  has  been:  How  much  do  the  children  know?  A 
certain  fund  of  information  is  essential  to  good  citizenship ;  but  mere 
knowledge  will  not  of  itself  make  a  good  citizen.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
an  aim  of  civic  education  to  give  a  serviceable  fund  of  information  relat- 
ing to  civic  life.  The  problem  which  confronts  the  teacher  and  the 
maker  of  the  course  of  study  is  :  How  much  and  what  kind  of  informa- 
tion should  be  acquired  by  the  pupil?  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be 
given  for  determining  just  what  information  should  be  given  under  all 
circumstances ;  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  information  is  valu- 
able in  proportion  as  it  may  be  and  is  related  to  the  experience  and 
interest  of  the  pupil. 

We  shall  find  that  our  civics  teaching  will  become  increasingly  effec- 
tive if  we  continually  test  it  by  asking  ourselves  questions  like  the 
following : 

Does  our  civics  teaching  appeal  to  the  pupil's  present,  actual  interest 
as  a  citizen? 

Does  it  afford  the  pupil  an  adequate  motive  {a)  for  studying  the  sub- 
ject, {b)  for  participating  in  civic  activities? 

Does  it  stimulate  the  pupil  to  cooperative  activity  in  the  interest  of 
his  own  community  {i.e.,  his  class,  school,  family,  neighbor- 
hood, city,  state,  nation)  ? 

Does  it  train  the  pupiFs  judgment  relative  to  civic  situations  and 
methods  of  dealing  with  them? 

Does  it  cultivate  in  the  pupil  civic  initiative? 

Does  it  select  and  organize  information  with  reference  to  its  relation 
to  the  civic  experience  and  intere.st  of  the  pupil? 


AIMS   AND   METHODS  xiii 


A  Lesson  on  Hozv  the  Community  Aids  the  Citizen 
to  Satisfy  His  Desire  for  Health 

(This  lesson  extended  over  several  days,  including  observational  work,  discus- 
sions, etc.  Text-book  assignment  in  chapter  IX  was  made  only  after  the  class 
discussion  was  well  under  way.) 

The  pupils  discussed  informally  what  good  health  means 
to  each  one,  and  gave  examples  from  their  own  experience 
of  consequences  of  sickness.  They  discussed  specific 
dangers  to  their  own  health,  such  as  impure  food,  water, 
or  air.  They  explained  how  they  individually  care  for 
their  own  health,  or  how  at  times  they  are  careless  of  it. 
They  discussed  how  in  many  cases  their  health  depends 
not  merely  on  their  own  care,  but  on  the  care  of  others, 
and  how  the  danger  to  hv-alth  is  increased  where  many 
people  are  gathered  together.  They  gave  examples  of  the 
dependence  of  each  upon  others  for  health  protection,  as 
in  the  case  of  epidemics.  They  derived  from  this  the  need 
for  cooperation  in  the  interest  of  health.  They  illustrated 
such  cooperation  in  the  home  and  in  the  school,  and  men- 
tioned rules  that  necessarily  exist  in  home  and  school  for 
health  protection.  They  gave  examples  of  neighborhood 
cooperation  for  health  protection,  such  as  combined  efforts 
for  clean  yards,  alleys,  and  streets.  After  observation  and 
inquiry,  they  reported  on  actual  menaces  to  health  in  their 
own  city,  and  made  the  logical  deduction  regarding  the 
necessity  for  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  entire  city  to 
avoid  these  dangers  or  to  remove  them.  This  raised  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  city  did  so  cooperate,  and  led 
to  a  thorough  discussion  of  how  the  city  government  pro- 
vides the  means  for  such  cooperation.  They  went  into 
detail  in  regard  to  how  the  department  of  health  insures 
pure  water  for  the  use  of  each  family,  provides  for  the 
removal  of  garbage  from  their  back  doors,  and  prevents 
the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.  This  brought  under 
review  the  regulations  (laws,  ordinances)  bearing  on  these 
matters,  the  activities  of  the  various  health  officers,  and 
how  these  are  supervised  by  the  board  of  health.     The 


xiv  INTRODUCTION   FOR   TEACHERS 

relation  of  the  latter  to  the  people  was  discussed,  and  also 
the  responsibility  of  each  citizen  for  cooperation  with  the 
board  of  health  for  the  health  of  the  community. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  various  duties  of  the  board  of 
health,  one  boy  asserted  that  ''it  passes  pure  food  laws." 
Another  at  once  objected,  "  No,  it  is  the  national  govern- 
ment that  makes  the  pure  food  laws."  At  once  the  horizon 
was  broadened,  the  question  why  the  national  government 
acts  in  a  case  like  this  was  discussed,  and  the  relation  of 
the  great  packing  houses  (for  example)  to  the  common 
health  interests  of  the  entire  nation  was  disclosed.  This 
led  to  a  consideration  of  other  national  health  interests, 
and  of  what  the  national  government  is  doing  in  this  field. 
It  also  suggested  the  sphere  of  state  activity,  which  was 
in  turn  related  to  the  interests  of  the  individual  and  to  the 
activities  of  the  local  and  the  general  governments. 

There  was  in  this  lesson  no  lack  of  information  regarding  govern- 
ment, but  it  was  organized  with  reference  to  its  relation  to  the  pupil's 
experience.  The  entire  exercise  was  built  on  his  interest  in  physical 
well-being.  Motive  was  supplied  for  the  study  both  by  the  method  of 
conducting  the  lesson,  and  by  the  relation  the  subject  bore  to  common 
experience.  The  pupils  were  dealing  with  real  things.  They  gathered 
their  information  largely  from  direct  observation,  from  the  give-and- 
take  of  discussion,  from  inquiries  at  home,  from  newspapers  and  printed 
reports,  merely  supplementing  when  necessary  from  text-books.  They 
were  ^/i?/;/^  something  all  the  time.  The  idea  of  cooj^eration  was  prom- 
inent in  the  subject-matter,  while  its  spirit  prevailed  in  the  conduct  of 
the  class.  The  teacher  was  largely  in  the  background  —  rather,  she 
was  merely  one  of  the  class.  The  pupils  asked  more  questions  than 
she.  They  were  encouraged  to  make  their  own  suggestions  regarding 
sources  of  information  and  methods  of  procedure,  thus  stimulating 
initiative.  Note,  especially,  the  easy  transition  from  a  consideration  of 
the  local  government  to  that  of  the  national  and  state  governments, 
of  the  relations  between  them,  and  of  all  to  the  individual.  The  time- 
worn  question  of  which  should  come  first  was  naturally  solved ;  if  the 
question  of  pure  food  laws  had  come  up  first  in  discussion  the  order  of 
treatment  would  doubtless  have  been  reversed. 

Still  other  points  may  be  more  clearly  illu: '        d  by  the  following 


AIMS   AND   METHODS  XV 


Lesson  frovi  a  Fall  of  Siioxv 

One  morning  after  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  the  question  was 
raised  in  a  number  of  civics  classes,  ''  What  will  be  the 
effects  of  this  snowfall  upon  the  life  of  the  community?" 
It  was  soon  developed,  among  other  things,  that  it  inter- 
fered seriously  with  traffic,  resulting  in  interruption  of  the 
schools,  of  business,  and  of  other  community  activities ; 
that  it  impeded  the  movements  of  the  fire  department ; 
that,  if  it  were  allowed  to  melt  and  freeze,  it  might  be 
dangerous  to  life  and  limb ;  and  that,  when  it  lay  in  dirty 
heaps,  it  marred  the  beauty  of  the  city.  The  snowfall  was 
thus  seen  in  various  community  relations  that  had  previ- 
ously been  discussed  by  the  classes  in  other  aspects. 

Who  cleaned  the  snow  from  the  roadways?  This  was 
done  for  the  citizens  by  the  street  cleaning  department 
of  the  city  government.  Who  cleaned  it  from  the  side- 
walks ?  This  was  not  done  by  the  city,  but  was  left  in  the 
hands  of  individual  property  owners.  The  pupils  ob- 
served, on  their  way  home,  how  many  walks  were  cleaned, 
and  made  a  report  on  the  subject.  Were  the  citizens  left 
to  their  own  discretion  in  the  matter?  No,  for  there  was 
a  city  ordinance  which  commanded  them  to  clean  their 
walks.  Why  was  the  ordinance  not  obeyed?  Why  was 
it  not  enforced?  What  is  the  effect  of  having  a  law  that 
is  disregarded? 

The  pupils  were  impressed  by  the  facts.  They  talked 
about  it  at  home.  They  wanted  to  do  something  about  it. 
The  question  was,  what  could  they  do?  Some  suggested 
complaining  to  the  authorities  ;  but  it  was  decided  after 
discussion  that  mere  complaint  seldom  accomplishes  much. 
Some  thought  that  they  could  speak  personally  to  of- 
fenders ;  but  this  was  voted  to  be  slightly  officious,  and 
perhaps  offensive  to  older  citizens.  It  was  suggested  that 
groups  of  boys  might  clean  the  walks  in  their  neighbor- 
hoods. As  a  commercial  venture  this  was  approved  ;  and 
in  a  few  cases  such  groups  cleaned  walks  before  vacant 
lots  as  a  public  service.     But  it  was  concluded,  in  general, 


Xvi        INTRODUCTION  FOR  TEACHERS 

that  for  boys  to  go  about  cleaning  other  people's  walks  as 
a  public  service  when  these  people  were  expected  to  do  it 
for  themselves,  was  shifting  the  burden  of  responsibility 
in  a  harmful  way. 

The  actual  result  was  that  the  boys  pretty  generally  saw 
to  it  that  their  own  walks  were  cleaned,  having  impressed 
upon  them  that  the  best  civic  service  is  usually  performed 
in  the  regular  course  of  one's  daily  tasks ;  and,  further,  a 
public  sentiment  was  created,  starting  in  the  class-rooms, 
extending  to  the  homes,  and  being  spread  by  civic  organ- 
izations and  the  newspapers,  until  the  householders  saw 
to  it  that  there  was  a  great  improvement  in  conditions 
during  the  remainder  of  the  season. 

A  number  of  suggestions  may  be  derived  from  this  lesson,  but 
especially  prominent  are  the  stimulation  of  initiative  and  the  training 
of  judgment  as  to  modes  of  civic  action.  It  also  illustrates  wisely-guided 
pupil  participation  in  a  civic  situation  affecting  the  entire  community. 
As  action  is  the  end  of  all  good  citizenship,  so  it  is  the  end,  as  well  as 
an  invaluable  means,  of  all  good  teaching.  Pupils  should  be  given 
abundant  opportunity  to  live  their  civics  in  the  school  community  and, 
as  far  as  possible,  in  the  community  outside  of  the  school.  While  par- 
ticipation in  real  civic  activities  is  a  desirable  means  of  civic  training, 
its  employment  requires  the  best  of  judgment  on  the  part  of  those  who 
direct  it.  The  incident  of  the  boys  who  brought  tin  cans  from  the 
city's  dumps  in  order  to  win  a  prize  illustrates  misdirected  activity. 
A  child  that  is  learning  to  walk  mi^st  walk  in  order  to  learn ;  but  he 
should  not  be  expected  to  walk  far,  nor  to  carry  heavy  burdens.  Ex- 
periments in  pupil  participation  in  civic  matters  that  thnjst  them  unduly 
into  the  public  view,  or  that  impose  upon  them  responsibilities  that 
properly  belong  elsewhere,  are  questionable.  The  business  of  the 
school  is  to  educate  the  child,  and  not  to  exploit  him  for  a  reformation 
of  the  community  that  the  proper  agencies,  or  the  more  responsible 
citizens,  have  failed  to  accomplish. 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND   THE 
CITIZEN 

CHAPTER   I 
THE   BEGINNING   OF   A   COMMUNITY 

Many  years  ago  a  company  of  people  in  the  state  of  New 
York   decided  to    found    a    settlement   in   the    far  West. 
Their  purpose  was  to  build  a  college  for  the  ^j^    ^j^^ 
education    of    Christian    ministers.      Their  first  settlement 
step  toward  actual   settlement  was  to   appoint  ^^^  "^*^^ 
an  exploring  committee  to  search  for  a  suitable  site,  and  a 
committee  to  find  families  who  were  willing  to  go. 

The  exploring  committee  was  given  instructions  to  ex- 
amine the  following  points : 

1.  What  is  the  quality  of  the  water  in  wells 

J  .  ,  What  the 

andsprmgs.?  .^  ^  ^^pj^^^^ 

2.  Do  the  streams  in  the  neighborhood  rise  committee 
in,  or  pass  through,  swamps .-'     Or  do  they  rise  ^^^  to  look 
from  springs  ?     Are  they  rapid  or  sluggish  .-• 

3.  Are  there  marshes  in  the  vicinity  ? 

4.  Is  the  land  level  or  rolling  ? 

5.  What  is  the  quality  and  depth  of  the  soil  ? 

6.  Is  there  a  convenient  and  abundant  supply  of  timber 
and  fuel  ? 

7.  Is  there  water  power  ?     If  not,  is  there  coal  ? 

8.  Are   there  navigable  streams,  or   canals  and  roads 
already  built  or  proposed  ? 


2  THE   COMMUNITY   AND  THE  CITIZEN 

After  three  months'  search  a  suitable  location  was  found 
in  a  beautiful  rolling  prairie  country,  on  the  watershed  be- 
Thesite  twecn  two  large  rivers,  neither  of  which  was 
selected  more  than  fifty  miles  distant.  The  prairie  land 
was  very  fertile.  Near  at  hand  was  a  large  tract  of  wood- 
land containing  oak,  black  walnut,  and  other  fine  trees, 
which  afforded  shelter  during  the  first  hard  winter,  before 
substantial  houses  could  be  built  upon  the  open  prairie, 
and  supplied  building  material  and  fuel.  There  were 
numerous  springs  and  streams  which  furnished  water  and 
good  drainage.  Since  the  settlement  has  become  a  city, 
one  of  these  streams  has  become  a  menace  to  health  be- 
cause of  the  refuse  drained  into  it.  Near  by  an  abun- 
dance of  coal  was  found,  and  in  the  course  of  time  there 
was  discovered  a  great  deposit  of  shale,  good  for  the  mak- 
ing of  paving  brick,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of 
the  city  at  the  present  time.  The  settlement  was  made 
before  the  day  of  railroads,  and  there  were  few  wagon  roads 
and  no  canals  in  the  region.  But  the  location  was  such 
that  it  was  felt  that  roads  were  certain  to  center  there 
in  the  near  future. 

The  committee  to  find  families  was  also  successful. 
Thirty  families,  comprising  one  hundred  and  seventy 
The  families  Persons,  were  found  who  would  go  to  the  new 
for  the  settlement     the     first    year.       The    settlement 

settlement  founded  by  these  families  still  takes  pride  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  city  of  homes. 

The  purpose  of  those  who  planned  the  settlement,  as 

we  have  seen,  was  to  found  a  college  to  educate  Christian 

ministers.     The  families  chosen  to  make  up  the 

Lommon 

interests  of  settlement  were  selected,  therefore,  with  a  view 
the  settlers  ^^  getting  people  who  would  take  an  interest  in 
this  purpose.     The  community  was  noted  for  its  zeal  for 


THE   BEGINNING   OF  A   COMMUNITY  3 

education  and  religion.  But  this  was  not  all  that  con- 
cerned them.  If  you  will  examine  the  instructions  given 
to  the  exploring  committee,  you  will  see  that  care  was  to 
be  taken  to  find  a  site  favorable  to  health  ;  it  must  also  be 
favorable  to  the  production  of  wealth  ;  and  there  must  be 
easy  means  of  communication  among  themselves  and  with 
the  outside  world.  Which  of  the  instructions  refer  to 
these  different  things  ? 

The  little  colony  not  only  planned  to  build  a  church,  a 
college,  and  a  common  school ;  they  also  built  houses 
for  shelter,  they  began  to  cultivate  the  soil,  they  put  up  a 
sawmill  and  a  gristmill.  Many  of  the  necessary  occupa- 
tions, such  as  making  clothing  and  shoes,  repairing  tools, 
and  making  furniture,  were  at  first  carried  on  in  each 
household,  but  soon  carpenters,  a  blacksmith,  a  shoemaker, 
and  other  tradesmen  settled  in  the  community.  For  social 
life,  the  people  had  their  singing  schools  and  quilting 
parties. 

The  colonists  had  acquired  a  township  of  land.     Three 
sections  were  reserved  for  the  site  of  the  village  and  the 
college.     The  village  was  laid  out  in  lots  to  be  jj^^  people 
sold  to  those  who  wished  to  build  homes  and   united  with 
places   of    business.      The    college    land    was  ^^^^^^and 
fenced   in,   and   lots  were  reserved    for    the   church,    an 
academy,  and  a  common  school.     Outside  of  the  village 
the  land  was  sold  in  half-sections  and  quarter-sections  for, 
farming.     These  farms  were  fenced  in  and  improved  by 
cultivation  and  by  the  erection   of  permanent  buildings. 
The  more  the  settlers  improved  the  land,  and  the  more 
they  invested  in  their  homes  and  business,  the  greater  cer- 
tainty was  there  that  the  community  would  be  permanent 
and  prosperous. 

The  early  life  of  this  little  community  was  very  simple. 


4  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Each  man,  with  his  neighbors'  help,  chopped  and  hauled 
,     the  lofifs  with  which  to  build  his  cabin.     In  the 

The  life  of  ^ 

the  early  edge  of  the  grove  there  were  **  a  dozen  or  two 
community  j^^  cabins,  some  built  without  a  nail  or  a  pane 
of  glass ;  with  the  spaces  between  the  logs  chinked  with 
mud  ;  with  outside  chimneys  made  of  clay  and  sticks ;  with 
boxes,  barrels,  and  short  logs  for  chairs,  a  large  box  for 
the  table,  and  a  one-post  bedstead  ^  for  an  honored  guest." 
Each  man  was  his  own  mechanic,  some  were  their  own 
cobblers,  and  the  wives  were  the  tailors  and  dressmakers. 
A  family  in  "  average  circumstances "  is  described  as 
having  "enough  money  to  pay  taxes  and  postage."  Serv- 
ants were  rare  and  were  on  equal  terms  with  the  family. 
The  cabins  were  adorned  by  such  simple  means  as  sticking 
four  balls  of  clay  upon  the  corners  of  the  chimneys.  It  is 
said  that  it  was  strange  "  how  quickly,  under  the  good 
taste  and  deft  fingers  of  the  ladies  of  the  colony,  these 
cabins  took  on  a  cozy  air  and  an  appearance  of  beauty  and 
refinement."  Books  and  papers  were  few,  and  were 
handed  about  from  house  to  house.  Money  was  scarce,  so 
that  the  exchange  of  goods  took  place  by  barter.  Farm 
produce  had  to  be  hauled  in  wagons  straight  across  the 
prairie  to  the  nearest  large  town,  fifty  miles  away.  When 
any  great  undertaking  was  proposed,  like  the  building  of  the 
church,  all  the  men  of  the  community  united  in  the  work. 
They  chopped  and  hauled  the  logs  from  the  grove,  they 
hewed  out  the  timbers,  they  put  the  frame  together,  and 
raised  the  building. 

The  people  in  this  little  community,  selected  as  they 
had  been  with  great  care  by  a  committee,  were  at  first 
remarkably   harmonious.     They  were  of  one  nationality  ; 

1  A  one-post  bedstead  was  buL't  in  the  corner  of  the  room,  the  two  walls 
serving  as  two  sides  of  the  bed. 


THE   BEGINNING   OF   A   COMMUNITY  5 

they  were  of  Puritan  principles.  They  all  rallied  around 
the  idea  of  the  Christian  college.  If  any  differ-  Goyemnjem 
ences  arose,  they  were  at  first  settled  by  the  of  the 
church  organization.  But  with  the  coming  of  '^"'""""'^y 
more  settlers,  and  the  development  of  new  interests,  it 
became  necessary  to  form  a  government. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  this  community,  which  has 
developed  until  to-day  it  is  a  thriving  city  with  handsome 
homes,  busy  streets,  noisy  factories,  churches,  schools,  and 
libraries.  It  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  is  thus 
brought  into  the  life  of  the  world  outside.  It  is  a  center 
of  culture  and  refinement,  and  a  pleasant  place  in  which 
to  liv^e. 

FOR  mVESTIGATION 

Keep  in  mind  that  your  ount  commitfiity  is  what  you  are  to  study, 
and  that  the  text  is  merely  a  guide.  This  chapter  is  the  true  story 
of  the  founding  of  a  community  in  Illinois.  Every  community,  in- 
cluding your  own,  has  had  a  beginning  more  or  less  like  that  of  the 
one  described  here.  The  text  with  the  following  questions  will  suggest 
the  kinds  of  things  you  should  look  for  in  your  own  community. 

1.  Can  you  find  out  how  the  site  of  your  community  happened  to  be 
selected  ? 

2.  Take  the  list  of  instructions  given  to  the  exploring  committee 
mentioned  on  page  i,  and  answer  the  questions  there  asked  with 
reference  to  your  own  community. 

3.  From  what  localities  did  the  early  settlers  in  your  own  com- 
munity come  ?  What  led  them  to  found  a  new  community  ?  How 
did  they  make  the  journey  from  their  old  homes  to  the  new  settle- 
ment ? 

4.  Find  true  stories  of  pioneer  life  in  your  own  community,  or  in 
your  own  state. 

5.  When  Virginia  was  colonized,  did  the  character  of  the  site  influ- 
ence the  life  of  the  colony  ?  Did  the  character  of  the  people  do  so  ? 
Answer  these  questions  with  reference  to  the  other  colonies. 

6.  What  were  the  purposes  that  led  the  colonists  to  settle  in  New 
England  ?  Compare  with  the  purposes  of  the  settlers  described  in 
this  chapter. 


6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

7.  Describe  the  life  of  the  people  in  Massachusetts  during  the 
first  few  years  of  the  colony.  Compare  with  the  life  of  the  settle- 
ment described  on  page  4  of  this  chapter,  and  with  the  pioneer  life 
of  your  own  community. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Where  possible,  the  pupil  should  gather  information  from  old 
settlers  of  his  acquaintance. 

2.  Where  available,  local  histories  should  be  made  use  of.  County 
histories,  reports  of  old  settlers'  meetings,  etc.,  are  useful. 

3.  Use  any  stories  of  pioneer  life,  like  that  of  Lincoln's  boyhood, 
to  supplement  local  history.  McMurry's  "  Pioneer  History  Stories " 
(Macmillan)  is  good. 

4.  For  questions  5-7,  the  ordinary  school  histories  will  usually 
suffice  where  other  books  on  colonial  life  are  not  available. 

5.  There  is  an  excellent  series  of  books  on  colonial  life,  suitable 
for  pupils,  by  Alice  Morse  Earle.  These  will  be  useful  throughout  the 
study.  Some  of  the  titles  are  :  "  Colonial  Dames  and  Good  Wives  "  ; 
"Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days";  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days"; 
"Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days." 

6.  "  Pioneer  Indianapolis,"  by  Ida  Stearns  Stickney  (Bobbs-Merrill, 
Indianapolis,  1907).  This  monograph  of  sixty-eight  pages  is  a  good  type 
study  of  the  early  development  of  community  life  in  its  various  impor- 
tant aspects.  The  material  is  organized  so  as  to  bring  out  the  civic  rela- 
tions and  is  in  excellent  literary  form.  This  might  well  be  a  model  for 
similar  studies  in  other  communities.  It  illustrates  how  much  material 
may  be  made  available  in  almost  any  community  by  the  cooperation  of 
school  authorities,  teachers  and  civic  organizations,  libraries,  or  public- 
spirited  citizens. 

7.  Small  and  Vincent,  ''  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society,"  Book 
II,  pp.  99-165:  "The  Natural  History  of  a  Society."  (For  the 
teacher.) 


CHAPTER   II 

WHAT   IS    A   COMMUNITY? 

The  story  of  the  founding  of  the  colony  in  the  West 
illustrates  certain  things  that  we  should  know  about  com- 
munities. Each  one  of  us  is  a  member  of  a  community. 
We  wish  to  know  just  what  our  community  is,  and  how  it 
grew.  We  wish  especially  to  know  what  it  does  for  us, 
and  what  we  owe  to  it. 

The  community  whose   beginnings  we   noticed  in  the 
last   chapter  consisted  of    a  group  of  people  who  settled 
together    in   a   single   locality,    and   who   were  ugg^j, 
bound  to  each  other  by  common  interests.    They  tion  of  a 
were  also  subject  to  common  laivs.    This  may  be  *=°™™"°'*y 
taken  as  a  definition  of  any  community. 

Communities  may  be  large  or  small ;  that  is,  the  people 
may  be  many  or  few,  and  the  locality  in  which  they  live  may 
include  a  large  area  or  a  small  one.     A  group 
of  neighboring  farmers  with  their  families  may  small  com- 
constitute  a  community.     In  this  case  the  area   "^""^'^'^s 
occupied  may  be  large,  while  the  people  are  few  in  number. 
Or  the  community  may  be  a  city,  with  a  dense  population 
in  a  comparatively  small  area.     Each  state  in  our  Union  is 
a  community,  and  so  is  our  nation,  because  each  is  com- 
posed of  a  group  of  people  occupying  a  common  territory 
and   governed   by  common   interests  and   common   laws. 
The  nation  is  composed  of  state  communities,  and  each 
state  is  made  up  of  many  city  and  rural  communities. 

You  may  live  in  a  small  city  which  is  a  community  in 

7 


8  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE  CITIZEN 

itself,  with  its  group  of  people,  its  boundaries,  its  common 

Communi-     interests,  and  its  common  laws.      A  few  miles 

ties  unite  outside  of  vour  city  is  a  community  of  farmers, 
into  larger  ■'  ■'  ■' 

ones  whose  houses  are  far  apart,  but  who  have  common 

interests,  such  as  keeping  up  the  roads  and  the  bridges  in 
their  neighborhood.  The  farmers  bring  their  produce  to 
the  city  for  the  use  of  the  people  there,  and  in  turn  depend 
upon  the  city  for  many  of  their  necessities  and  pleasures. 
The  country  and  the  city  communities  thus  have  certain 
interests  in  common,  and  their  dealings  with  each  other 
are  regulated  by  common  laws.  You  are,  therefore,  a  mem- 
ber not  only  of  your  city  community,  but  also  of  a  larger 
community  including  the  farmers.  You  belong  also  to  the 
community  of  the  whole  state,  and  to  a  still  larger  one 
including  the  nation. 

No  community  ever  began  its  existence  fully  formed, 
but  each  has  grown  from  small  beginnings.  It  is  like  the 
Communi-  growth  of  a  plant  from  the  seed.  You  may  have 
fronfsmlil  ^^^^  ^  tangled  mass  of  vines  growing  from  a 
beginnings  common  root,  with  the  branches  and  tendrils  so 
interwoven  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  one  of  them  back  to 
the  main  trunk.  So  in  a  great  community  like  a  city,  or 
like  our  nation,  we  find  the  structure  and  the  organization 
so  complicated  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  understand  them. 
It  is  easier  to  take  a  community  in  its  simpler  stages,  like 
that  of  the  last  chapter,  for  a  beginning  of  our  study. 

Being  a  member  of  a  community  means  that  each  one 
Member-  °^  ^^  takes  part  in,  and  contributes  to,  its  life, 
ship  in  a  The  hand  is  a  member  of  the  body;  it  receives 
commumty  |j^^  from  the  body  and  contributes  to  its  life. 
If  the  body  is  sick,  the  hand  cannot  do  its  work  well ;  if 
the  hand  is  crippled,  the  body  suffers.  So  your  life  is 
closely  interwoven  with  that  of  the  community  of  which 


WHAT    IS    A   COMMUNITY?  9 

you  are  a  member.  The  best  of  your  life  comes  from 
participation  in  its  life.  You  can  imagine  yourself  shut 
off  from  mankind,  like  Robinson  Crusoe  ;  but  what  a  narrow 
life  you  would  lead  !  Citizenship  means  just  this  member- 
ship in  the  community,  with  its  giving  to  and    ^ 

'^  .      ,       ?  Citizenship 

receiving  from  the  community's  life;  and  good 

citizenship  means  performing  well  one's  part  as  a  member 
of  the  community.  Citizenship  carries  with  it  certain 
privileges  and  certain  duties. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1 .  Talk  over  in  class  the  four  essentials  of  a  community  —  the  group 
of  people,  the  site,  the  common  interests,  and  the  common  laws.  Apply 
these  essentials  to  your  own  community. 

2.  Is  your  class  a  community?  Explain.  What  are  its  common 
interests?     Are  its  laws  written  or  unwritten? 

3.  Show  how  the  different  classes  in  your  school  are  bound  together 
by  interests  common  to  the  whole  school.  Compare  this  union  of  classes 
into  a  school  with  the  union  of  states  into  a  nation. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  things  in  which  your  family  and  your 
nearest  neighbors  have  a  common  interest  because  of  living  close 
together? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  things  in  which  the  people  of  a  city  and  the 
neighboring  farmers  have  a  common  interest? 

6.  Name  some  things  in  which  all  the  cities  of  a  state  have  a  com- 
mon interest.  What  are  some  things  in  which  the  whole  nation  has  a 
common  interest? 

7.  Show  how  an  injury  or  a  benefit  to  one  person  may  be  an  injury 
or  a  benefit  to  the  whole  community  of  which  the  person  is  a  member. 
Show  how  an  injury  or  a  benefit  to  a  community  will  injure  or  benefit 
the  individual  members  of  the  community. 

8.  Can  you  be  a  member  of  your  class  without  doing  it  either  good 
or  harm?  If  a  member  of  a  community  contributes  nothing  to  its  wel- 
fare, can  he  avoid  being  harmful  to  it?     E.xplain. 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  a  citizen  receives  from  his 
community? 

10.  Think  of  some  ways  in  which  a  citizen  may  contribute  to  the 
welfare  ot  his  community. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   SITE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 

In  beginning  our  study  we  must  remember  that  the 
people  and  the  locaHty  both  contribute  something  to  make 
our  community  what  it  is. 

The  geographical  features  of  the  land  enter  into  the 
life  of  the  community  in  many  ways.  In  its  relation 
Importance  to  the  land,  we  may  compare  the  growth  of  a 
of  the  land  community  to  the  growth  of  a  plant.  The 
plant  derives  its  support  from  the  soil.  Some  kinds  of 
plants  flourish  in  one  kind  of  soil,  other  kinds  in  other 
soils.  In  the  case  of  all  plants,  their  size  and  fruitfulness 
depend  not  merely  on  the  kind  of  seed  sown,  but  also  on 
the  character  of  the  soil.  It  is  the  same  with  communi- 
ties. Whether  a  community  shall  live  or  die  may  depend 
entirely  on  the  character  of  its  site. 

The  importance  of  the  character  of  the  land  is  seen 
clearly  in  the  account  of  the  founding  of  the  community 
in  the  first  chapter.  The  site  of  a  community  is  not 
always  selected  so  carefully  as  in  that  case ;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  the  site  is  always  important. 

Natural  geographical  conditions  usually  determine 
where  large  cities  shall  grow.  Nature  seems  to  have 
indeter-  planned  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River  as  the 
wh^r^^cities  ^^^^  °^  ^^^  greatest  city  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
shau  grow  A  good  harbor,  like  that  of  Boston  or  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  the  junction  of  two  navigable  rivers,  as  at  Pittsburg 
or  St.    Louis ;   the  falls  of   a   river,  checking  navigation 


THE   SITE   OF   THE    COMMUNITY  II 

and  affording  water  power,  as  at  Minneapolis  or  Louisville ; 
the  head  of  a  river  estuary,  as  at  Quebec  or  Philadelphia; 
the  center  of  a  rich  region  where  roads  naturally  cross, 
as  at  Indianapolis  —  all  these  are  conditions  favoring,  if 
not  determining,  the  growth  of  large  communities. 

The  health  of  a  community  depends  in  many  ways  on 
the  character  of  the  land.  Low,  flat  regions  are  hkely  to 
be  unhealthful.  Sluggish  streams  and  lakes  in  relation 
that  tend  to  become  stagnant  breed  disease.  *°  health 
The  supply  of  drinking  water  is  an  important  matter,  and 
often  depends  on  the  character  of  the  underlying  rocks 
into  which  wells  are  sunk.  These  geographical  influences 
become  of  the  greatest  importance  in  cities  where  the 
population  is  dense,  for  the  artificial  drainage  may  be 
good  or  bad  according  to  the  character  of  the  natural 
drainage ;  and  the  water  supply  is  in  much  greater  danger 
of  pollution  in  the  city  than  in  smaller  communities.  A 
stream  which  is  naturally  clear  and  sparkling  may  be- 
come, in  the  heart  of  a  city,  a  foul  breeding  place  of  disease. 

Climate  is  also  one  of  the  conditions  that  influence  com- 
munity life.     A  Httle  thought  will  show  how  climate  may 
determine  the  mode  of  life — the  character  of  influence  of 
the  houses,  the  form  of  clothing,  and  even  the   climate 
nature  of  the  sports  and  amusements  of  the  people. 

The  natural  resources  of  a  region  go  far  to  determine  the 
character  of  a  community  through  the  forms  of  industry 
and  the  consequent  modes  of  life  to  which  thev  r  ^ 

^     _  J     Influence 

lead.     The  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  presence  of  of  natural 
mineral  ores  of  different  kinds,  or  of  abundance  "^°""«s 
of  fuel,  or  of  forest  products,  or  of  water  power,  determine 
the  kinds  of  occupations,  the  size  of  communities,  the  char- 
acter of  the  population,  and  even  to  a  large  extent  the 
nature  of  the  laws  and  the  forms  of  government.     Can 


12  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

you  not  name  some  cities  in  the  United  States  that  are 
celebrated  for  industries  which  depend  on  the  presence  of 
important  natural  resources  ? 

In  many  rural  communities  the  farmers  are  almost  com- 
pletely isolated  from  one  another  during  a  part  of  the  year 
because  the  roads  are  impassable,  owing  to  a  soil  which 
forms  a  deep  mud,  or  to  the  flat  and  swampy  character  of 
Influence  ^^^  land.  This  condition  interferes  with  the 
of  surface  social,  business,  and  intellectual  life  of  the  farm- 
ers, and  influences  their  relations  with  one 
another  in  many  ways.  An  unusually  hilly  site  may 
affect  the  social  and  the  business  life  of  a  city.  A  river 
and  its  branches  may  divide  a  city  into  parts  more 
or  less  distinct  and  with  differing  characteristics.  Such 
a  city  is  Chicago,  with  its  North,  West,  and  South 
Sides. 

Virginia  affords  an  example  of  how  the  land  may  shape 
the  character  and  the  history  of  a  large  community.  The 
Influence  of  development  of  this  colony  and  state  was  de- 
geography  termined  to  a  remarkable  extent  by  conditions 
devetop-  ^^  climate,  soil,  and  surface  which  encouraged 
mentof  the  cultivation  of  the  tobacco  plant.  This  in- 
irgima  dustry  required  large  plantations,  which  were  dis- 
tributed along  the  shores  of  the  navigable  rivers,  of  which 
there  were  many.  These  rivers  were  large  enough  to  per- 
mit the  ocean  vessels  of  that  time  to  pass  some  distance  up 
their  courses.  Therefore  each  planter  had  his  wharf,  at 
which  he  loaded  his  tobacco  for  shipment  and  received 
manufactured  goods  from  abroad.  These  conditions  dis- 
couraged the  growth  of  cities,  and  the  population  remained 
almost  wholly  rural.  An  abundance  of  cheap  labor  was 
necessary,  and  hence  slavery  gained  a  foothold.  The 
scattering  of  the  population  over  wide  areas  made  it  dil- 


THE    SITE    OF   THE    COMMUNITY  1 3 

flcult  for  the  people  to  come  together  at  a  common  meet- 
ing place,  so  that  the  township  organization  with  its 
government  by  town-meeting,  such  as  was  found  in  New 
England,  was  impracticable,  and  the  county  system  of 
government  developed  instead  (see  chapter  XXI). 

In  New  England,  on  the  other  hand,  the  infertility  of 
the  soil,  the  severity  of  the  winters,  the  hilly  character 
of  the  region,  the  presence  of  abundant  water  power,  the 
excellence  of  the  fisheries  along  the  coast,  and  the  hostility 
of  the  native  Indian  tribes  all  contributed  to  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  population  in  towns  and  helped  to  determine 
the  mode  of  life  and  a  form  of  local  government  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Virginia. 

The  character  of  our  national  community  depends  in  a 
large  measure  on  the  character  of  the  land.  Rich  resources 
have  made  our  land  a  place  of  opportunity  to  all.  ^j^^  j^^^^^ 
East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  least,  the  of  our 
country  is  well  fitted  geographically  to  be  the  °^*^°° 
home  of  a  single  great  nation  rather  than  of  many  small 
ones.  The  whole  region  from  the  Rockies  to  the  Alle- 
ghanies  is  closely  bound  together  by  river  systems.  The 
navigable  rivers  in  early  days,  and  the  conditions  which 
have  made  the  building  of  railroads  easy  in  later  times, 
have  hastened  the  settlement  of  the  country.  Our  situation 
between  the  two  great  oceans  has  protected  us  from  foreign 
aggression,  and  it  has  also  given  us  a  great  advantage  in 
the  commerce  of  the  world.  Yet  we  have  had  many  geo- 
graphical difficulties  to  overcome.  If  it  were  not  for  the 
wonderful  development  of  means  of  rapid  transportation 
and  communication,  such  as  the  railroad,  the  telegraph  and 
the  telephone,  the  postal  system  and  the  newspapers,  it 
might  have  been  very  difficult  for  our  great  country  to  hold 
together  under  one  government,  because  of  the  geographical 


14  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

differences  of  the  different  sections.  "  For  the  creation  of 
the  nation  the  conquest  of  her  proper  territory  from  Nature 
was  first  necessary.  ...  A  bold  race  has  derived  inspi- 
ration from  the  size,  the  difficulty,  the  danger  of  the  task." 

FOR   INVESTIGATION 

1.  a.  If  you  live  on  a  farm  or  are  well  acquainted  with  one,  make  a 
sketch  map  of  it,  showing  position  of  highlands,  lowlands,  marshes, 
timber,  streams ;  also  houses,  barns,  roads,  bridges. 

b.  Did  the  features  of  the  land  determine  the  location  of  the  build- 
ings? Of  the  roads  and  bridges?  The  drainage  of  the  farm?  The 
kinds  of  crops  raised  on  different  parts  of  the  farm? 

c.  Has  the  character  of  the  land  influenced  the  life  of  the  farmer's 
family  in  any  way?  (Bear  in  mind  climate,  the  change  of  seasons, 
the  presence  of  woods,  good  or  bad  roads ;  and  think  of  their  effects 
upon  going  to  school  or  church,  amusements,  social  life.) 

2.  Can  you  discover  any  advantages  in  the  site  of  the  town  in  which 
you  live,  or  of  the  one  nearest  to  your  home,  that  determined  its  loca- 
tion ?     How? 

3.  Make  a  map  of  the  site  of  your  town  or  city  showing  the  natural 
drainage ;  i.e.  the  streams  into  which  the  land  is  drained.  Is  the 
drainage  good  or  bad?     Is  it  equally  good  in  all  parts  of  the  city  ? 

4.  What  are  the  natural  resources  of  the  region  in  which  your  com- 
munity is  situated?  How  have  they  influenced  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity ? 

5.  Are  the  geographical  conditions  in  your  community  favorable  to 
good  roads  in  the  country  districts?  Explain  fully.  How  does  this 
influence  the  life  of  the  towns  ?     Of  the  farmers? 

6.  Is  your  community  divided  into  districts  or  regions  by  any  natural 
features  (hills,  streams,  etc.)?  Can  you  show  any  results  of  this  fact 
upon  the  life  of  the  community? 

7.  What  geographical  conditions  affect  your  supply  of  drinking 
water? 

8.  Is  your  state  noted  for  any  particular  industries?  If  so,  what 
geographical  conditions  have  helped  to  make  it  so? 

9.  What  geographical  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome  in  the  develop- 
ment of  your  state?  How  has  the  state  government  helped  to  over- 
come them? 

10.  Describe  some  important  work  now  being  done  by  the  national 
government  to  overcome  geographical  difficulties. 


THE    SITE   OF    THE    COMMUNITY 


15 


ir.  Do  you  know  of  any  laws  in  your  state  that  are  due  to  particular 
geographical  conditions  (such  as  the  laws  relating  to  water  rights  in  an 
irrigated  region)  ? 

12.  Explain  how  ditferences  in  geographical  conditions  once  nearly 
divided  our  nation  into  two. 

13.  What  geographicil  sections  of  our  nation  would  perhaps  be  most 
likely  to  become  independent  politically  if  it  were  not  for  the  invention 
of  easy  means  of  communication  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  teacher  should  see  that  the  work  in  this  chapter  is  correlated 
with  the  pupil's  work  in  geography. 


-  ■■  I»3t^ 


CHAPTER  IV 
WHAT  THE    PEOPLE   IN   COMMUNITIES   ARE   SEEKING 

Man  has  been  called  a  bundle  of  wants,  and  these  wants 
are  constantly  leading  him  to  act  in  such  a  way  as  to 
satisfy  them. 

First  of  all,  men  desire  life  and  health.     They  will  or- 
dinarily give  up  anything  in  order  to  preserve  their  lives. 
The  desire      Good  health  is  one  of  the  most  priceless    pos- 
for  life  and     sessions.     A  perfectly  sound  and  healthy  body 
^  *  is  one  of  the  greatest    joys  a   man  can    have, 

and  without  it  he  is  unable  to  satisfy  his  other  desires  to 
the  fullest  extent.  Recall  the  provisions  made  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  health  by  the  colonists  mentioned 
in  the  first  chapter. 

Another  thing  that  people  want  is  to  own  something. 
Boys  and  girls  like  to  have  things  that  they  can  call  their 
The  desire  own.  The  things  that  men  seek  to  own — houses, 
for  wealth  cattle,  books,  pictures,  and  the  like  —  constitute 
wealth.  The  desire  for  wealth  is  a  very  strong  one, 
stronger  in  some  persons  than  in  others.  What  a  man 
owns  is  valuable  because  of  what  he  can  do  with  it.  It 
helps  him  to  sustain  and  protect  life.  It  enables  him  to 
enjoy  comforts  and  luxuries  that  he  could  not  otherwise 
have.  It  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  educate  himself, 
to  satisfy  his  desire  for  art,  to  travel,  and  to  enter  more 
fully  into  social  life.  Men  engage  in  farming,  in  manufac- 
turing, in  buying  and  selling,  and  many  other  forms  of 
business  to  satisfy  their  desire  for  wealth. 


WHAT   THE    PEOPLE    ARE    SEEKING  17 

Men  also  want  knowledge.    That  is  why  children  ask  so 
many  questions,  and  why  boys  like  to  take  things  to  pieces 
to  see  how  they  are  made.     It  is  this  desire  xh  d  - 
that  led  Peary  to  the  arctic  regions,  and  Living-  sire  for 
stone  to  the  heart  of  Africa.     It    lies   at   the  J^"°*i«dg« 
foundation  of    all  science.      It  was  one  of   the    foremost 
desires  that  led  to  the  founding  of  the  settlement  in  the 
West  (chapter  I). 

Men  also  take  pleasure  in  things  that  are  beautiful. 
This  may  lead  to  travel,  to  the  collection  of  pictures,  to  the 
erection  of  beautiful  buildings,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
well-kept  streets  and  lawns.  There  is  a  great  The  desire 
variety  of  activities  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  ^o^  beauty 
desire  for  beautiful  things.  How  did  this  desire  show 
itself  in  the  community  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter  ? 

No  race  or  tribe  of  men  has  ever  been  known  that  did 
not  have  some  form  of  religion.     The  religious  desire  is 
characteristic    of    men.     In    every    community   xhe  desire 
there  are  certain  things  that  men  do  to  satisfy  it.   for  right- 
It  may  be  the  sacrificing  of  animals,  as  among   ®°"^°®^ 
the  ancient  Hebrews.     It  may    be    the   throwing  of  chil- 
dren to  the  crocodiles,  as  in  India.     It  may  be  the  build- 
ing of  beautiful  temples,  as  in  ancient  Greece.     It  may 
be  waging  a  great  war,  like  the  Crusades ;  or  it  may  be 
the  founding  of  a  hospital  or  some  other  charitable  institu- 
tion.    The  desire  for  the  spread  of  religion  was  the  chief 
motive  of  the  settlers  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter. 

Man  desires  companionship.     He  has  been  called  a  social 
animal.     He  engages  in  many  forms  of  activity  to  gratify 
his  desire  to  associate  with  other  men.     How  The  desire 
fully  could  this  desire  be  satisfied  in  the  little   ^°^  ^°^' 

■'  panion- 

community  founded  in  the  West  ?  ship 

Many  of  the  things  that  men  do  are  the  result  of  several 


l8  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

of  these  desires  working  together.     A  man's  desires  for 
Combina-      knowledge,  for  beautiful  scenery,  and  for  health 
tions  of         may   combine   to   lead  him  to   the  mountains. 
sires  When  Columbus  sailed  on   his  voyage  of  dis- 

covery, he  was  led  by  his  desire  for  knowledge,  his  desire 
for  wealth,  and  his  desire  to  extend  the  influence  of  Chris- 
^     ,    .        tianity.     Sometimes  one  desire  may  seem  to  ob- 

One  desire  ■'  ■' 

sometimes  scure  every  Other  desire  in  the  life  of  a  person, 
shuts  out  all  'pj^g  XovQ,  of  wealth  may  take  such  possession  of  a 

man  that  he  becomes  a  miser,  or  perhaps  dis- 
honest. It  has  sometimes  happened  that  a  man  has  be- 
come so  enthusiastic  in  the  pursuit  of  art,  or  of  science, 
that  he  has  sacrificed  his  health,  or  even  Hfe  itself,  as  in 
the  case  of  Andre,  who  attempted  to  reach  the  north  pole 
in  a  balloon.  History  tells  us  of  men  who  were  so  devoted 
to  what  they  believed  to  be  their  religious  duty  that  they 
became  hermits,  shutting  themselves  away  from  all  com- 
The  well-  panionship, denying  themselvesriches,  mutilating 
rounded        and  Starving  the  body,  and  even  suffering  death. 

But  in  every  normal  person  there  are  found  all 
the  desires  named,  and  tJie  well-rounded  life  is  made  up  of 
activities  to  satisfy  all  of  these  desires  in  due  proportion. 

Two  persons  may  have  the  same  desires,  but  may  at- 
tempt to  satisfy  them  in  different  ways.  The  Flathead 
Different  Indians  bind  boards  upon  the  foreheads  of  their 
ways  of         children,  flattening  them,  because  they  think  the 

satisfying  ,     .      ,  .^    f         a  •  i      i  t      i 

the  same  result  IS  beautiful.  A  certam  people  blacken 
desire  their    teeth    and  scorn    Europeans    who    have 

"  white  teeth  Kke  dogs."  So  among  us  there  are  people 
who  seem  to  take  delight  in  things  that  are  repugnant  to 
others.  The  miser  and  the  spendthrift  both  have  wrong 
ideas  of  the  use  of  wealth.  One  man's  desire  for  com- 
panionship may  lead  him  into  profitable  associations  with 


WHAT   THE   PEOPLE   ARE   SEEKING  19 

others.       The  same  desire  in  another   may  lead  him    to 
waste  his  time  in  the  evil  influences  of  the  saloon. 

Where  there  are  so  many  desires  and  so  many  ways  of 
satisfying  them  it  is  not  strange  that  the  activities  of  peo- 
ple sometimes  conflict.    The  robber,  in  his  pur-   Conflicts  of 
suit    of   wealth,   conflicts  with    the    desires    of  desires  and 
others.     One  man  may  erect  a  cheap  and  ugly 
building  that  is  a  nuisance  in  the  neighborhood.     An  em- 
ployer may  maintain  a  poorly  ventilated  factory  or  store 
that   endangers   the  health  of  those  who   work  for   him. 
A  crowd  of  young  people  in  their  love  of  sport  and  com- 
panionship may  interfere  with  the  peaceful  pursuits  and 
the  comfort  of  others.     That  community  is  best  to  live  in, 
in  which  each  citizen  not  only  has  the  greatest  opportunity 
to  satisfy  his  desires  in  life,  but  also  recognizes  the  fact 
that   all   other  citizens  have  their  desires,  and  an  equal 
right  to  satisfy  them. 

In  the  course  of  time  men,  living  together  in  communi- 
ties,  have  developed  various  means  to  secure    harmony, 
and   to    prevent  the   rights  of  one  from    being   jj^^^^  ^^ 
interfered    with   by    others.      Three    means    to   secure 
secure  these  results  are  :  armony 

1.  T/te  scJiool.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  train  children  for 
citizenship  ;  that  is,  for  membership  in  the  community. 
(See  chapter  XV.) 

2.  The  church.  It  works  through  the  religious  desires  of 
men.  Its  service  in  helping  men  to  live  harmoniously  to- 
gether may  be  expressed  by  its  teaching,  "  Do  unto  others 
as  ye  would  be  done  by." 

3.  G overtime jit.  It  establishes  and  enforces  laws  for  the 
common  good,  which  all  should  willingly  observe.  It  is 
not  something  placed  over  us  from  without,  to  tyrannize 
over  us,  and  to  be  feared  and  antagonized.     It  is  a  friend 


20  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

of  our  own  making,  and  should  be  cherished  and  sup- 
ported by  every  citizen  to  the  fullest  extent  possible.  The 
beneficent  purpose  of  government  is  stated  in  the  preamble 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  which  reads : 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  union,  establish  Justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common  defettse,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and 
our  posterity,  do  ordaiji  and  establish  this  Constitution  for 
the  United  States  of  America. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  final  impression  to  be  left  prominent  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
as  a  result  of  the  study  of  this  chapter  is  that  of  government  and  law 
as  means  of  cooperation. 

1.  What  things  are  done  in  your  own  home  for  the  purpose  of  satis- 
fying the  desires  mentioned  in  this  chapter  ? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  things,  outside  of  your  home,  that  the 
people  of  your  community  do  to  satisfy  these  desires  ? 

3.  What  desires  are  gratified  by  a  person  who  does  the  following 
things  :  paints  his  house  ;  attends  a  concert ;  visits  a  sick  friend  ;  buys 
a  book ;  makes  a  garden ;  keeps  a  dog ;  takes  out  a  fire-insurance 
policy ;  keeps  a  store  ;  goes  to  church  ;  attends  a  lecture  ? 

4.  Show  how  the  following  arrangements  help  you  and  others  to 
satisfy  the  desires  named :  paved  streets  ;  the  post  office  ;  a  hospital ; 
a  library ;  a  court  house ;  a  market ;  the  telephone ;  sewers ;  a  fire 
department ;  a  park.  Name  other  community  arrangements  or  institu- 
tions and  explain  them  in  the  same  way. 

5.  Show  how  a  person's  desire  for  companionship  may  conflict 
with  his  desire  for  knowledge ;  how  his  desire  for  wealth  may  conflict 
with  his  desire  for  health  or  for  companionship. 

6.  Give  illustrations  of  how  some  persons,  in  satisfying  their  desires, 
interfere  with  the  attempts  of  otliers  to  satisfy  theirs. 

7.  Does  community  life  make  it  easier,  or  more  difficult,  for  men  to 
satisfy  their  desire  for  life  ;  for  health  ;  for  wealth  ;  for  knowledge  ;  for 
beauty;  for  religion?     Explain. 

8.  Show  how,  in  the  school,  the  pupil  who  "does  as  he  pleases" 
interferes  with  the  liberty  of  others.     Is  it  right  that  his  own  liberty 


WHAT   THE    TEOPLE   ARE    SEEKING  21 

should  then  be  restricted?     Why?     Is  liberty  tiie  right  to  "do  as  one 
pleases"  ? 

9,  Discuss  some  rules  that  regulate  conduct  in  your  home  ;  in  your 
school ;  on  your  playground  ;  on  the  street.  Show  how  such  rules  are 
necessary  to  prevent  conflict  of  interests.  Compare  such  rules  with 
city  or  state  laws. 

ID.  Study  together  in  class  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  and,  if  possible,  a  part  of  the  bill  of  rights 
of  your  state  constitution.  Find  how  many  of  the  desires  mentioned  in 
this  chapter  are  there  provided  for. 

11.  Mention  one  way  in  which  government  helps  you  to  satisfy 
each  of  the  desires  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

12.  Discuss  the  idea  of  government  as  a  means  by  which  the  people 
may  cooperate  for  the  common  good,  and  illustrate  it  with  particular 
cases. 

REFERENCE 

Small  and  Vincent,  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society,"  pp.  169- 
182.     (Book  III,  chap.  I.)     (For  the  teacher.) 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  FAMILY 

It  was  pointed  out  in  the  first  chapter  that  the  commun- 
ity in  the  West  was  settled  by  families,  and  grew  up  to 

„,    ,     .,       be  «  city  of  homes.    There  are  communities  in 
The  family  J'     J 

in  the  our  land  in  which  a  large  part  of  the  popula- 

community  ^j^^^  -^  without  homes  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word.  In  the  far  West  there  are  mining  towns, 
and  in  the  North  lumber  camps,  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  men  without  families.  In  such  communities 
life  is  rough,  some  of  the  best  features  of  civilized  life  are 
lacking,  and  the  community  is  likely  to  be  lawless.  In 
cities  there  are  thousands  of  people  who  live  in  dwelling 
places  with  very  little  that  we  usually  associate  with 
home  life.  Many,  indeed,  have  not  even  regular  dwelling 
places,  as  in  the  case  of  tramps.  There  are  thousands  of 
unfortunate,  homeless  children  adrift  in  our  great  cities.  It 
is  largely  in  the  drifting,  homeless  population  that  the  dis- 
orderly and  criminal  classes  are  found.  The  family  and  the 
home  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  a  community,  first 
because  of  what  they  do  for  the  individual  citizen  in  help- 
ing him  to  satisfy  the  desires  of  life,  and  second  because  of 
the  services  they  render  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 

What  the  normal  family  does  for  its  members  can  best 
be  understood  if  we  first  study  the  life  of  a  pioneer  family, 
The  pioneer  cast  almost  entirely  upon  its  own  resources  in  a 
family  i^gvv  country.     Tempted  by  stories  of  rich  lands 

in  the  West  and  greater  opportunities  of  gaining  a  liveli- 


THE   FAMILY  23 

hood  and  accumulating  wealth,  this  family  had  packed  its 
household  goods  and,  with  a  team  of  horses  and  a  wagon,  had 
undertaken  the  journey  of  six  weeks  or  more  into  the  wil- 
derness. It  selected  a  spot  in  an  open  space  in  the  forest,  not 
far  from  the  banks  of  a  stream,  where  the  conditions  of  the 
land  gave  promise  of  making  a  new  home  safe,  pleasant, 
and  productive  of  good  results.  The  family  then  was  miles 
from  any  other  human  abode.  There  were  no  roads  con- 
necting it  with  civilization  except  the  rough  "trace"  By 
which  it  found  its  way  into  the  forest.  The  family  was 
face  to  face  with  the  great  wilderness,  whose  conquest 
was  for  the  present  its  chief  task. 

The  husband  and  father  immediately  began  to  make  a 
home.  With  the  help  of  his  son,  he  cut  down  trees  from 
the  forest  and  built  a  log  house.  He  became  providing  a 
woodcutter,  carpenter,  and  builder.  They  made  shelter 
some  simple  furniture,  and  built  a  great  fireplace  of  clay 
and  sticks,  with  an  oven.  Fuel  was  found  in  abundance  in 
the  forest. 

The  open  space  in   the  forest  around  the  house  was 
enlarged   by   clearing   away   the   trees,    the    ground   was 
plowed,  and  grain  and  vegetables  were  planted.   Providing 
The  grain  was  cut  and  threshed  by  hand,  and   ^°°^ 
ground  into  meal  in  a  home-made  stone  mill.     For  fresh 
meat  they  had  to  depend  chiefly  upon  game  from  the  forest. 
Some  necessities,  such  as  salt  and  powder,  and  a  few  lux- 
uries, such   as  coffee,  had  to  be  brought  with   Exchange 
great  difficulty  from  the  nearest  settlement  many  of  goods 
miles  away.     In  exchange  for  these  things  they  gave  their 
surplus  farm  products  and  a  few  furs  from  animals  trapped 
during  the  winter.     Money  was  almost  never  seen  in  this 
Western  country. 

The  man  built  a  forge.     Under  the  stress  of  necessity, 


24  THE  COMMUNITY  AND    THE  CITIZEN 

and  aided  by  some  little  experience  gained  in  the  East  he 
Occupations  was  able  to  repair  his  tools,  and  even  to  make 
andthe^  ^^  ^^^^  ones,  to  shoe  his  horses,  and  to  do  many- 
mother  other  things  necessary  on  the  farm.  He  experi- 
mented in  making  moccasins  and  even  shoes.  He  began 
the  raising  of  sheep  and  cultivated  flax.  A  spinning  wheel 
and  a  hand  loom  were  set  up  in  the  house,  and  coarse  but 
serviceable  clothing  was  made  by  the  mother's  hand. 

Little  was  to  be  feared,  in  those  early  days,  from  thieves 
and  marauders,  although  there  were  occasional  rumors 
Protection  of  threatened  Indian  attacks.  Against  possible 
against  dangers  of  this  kind  the  father  was  a  watchful 

violence  and  '^ 

disease  protector.     Another  enemy  more  difficult  to  cope 

with  was  sickness,  due  to  the  presence  of  a  swamp  near  at 
hand.  The  medicine  chest,  supplemented  by  roots  and 
herbs  from  the  forest,  was  a  valuable  part  of  the  family 
equipment.  The  mother  proved  herself  a  sympathetic  and 
resourceful  physician  and  nurse.  She  also  saw  to  it  that 
the  cause  of  disease  was  reduced  as  much  as  possible  by 
keeping  the  premises  clean. 

The  education  of  the  children  had  to  be  looked  after. 
The  son  was  taught  the  duties  of  the  farm  and  the  use  of 
Education  tools  of  all  kinds.  He  became  a  skillful  woods 
and  art  man.     The  older  girl  learned  the  duties  of  the 

household,  how  to  spin  and  weave,  and  many  other  things 
to  fit  her  for  the  Hfe  she  had  to  lead.  The  mother  taught 
the  youngest  child  to  read,  and  instructed  all  in  ideas  of 
right  living.  She  planted  a  little  flower  garden  in  the 
dooryard,  and  trained  vines  over  the  house.  With  the 
crude  materials  at  hand,  she  used  her  taste  to  the  utmost 
in  beautifying  the  children's  clothes. 

The  parents  were  religious  people  in  accordance  with 
their  early  training.     The  family  Bible  occupied  a  promi- 


THE   FAMILY 


25 


nent  place  in  the  household,  and  from  it  every  day  the 
father  read  to  the  family  group.     There  was  no   ^  ,.  . 

/    °         ^  Rebgion 

church  for  miles  around. 

There  was  little  companionship  for  the  members  of  this 
family  outside  of  the  family  group;  but  within  the  group 
there  was  the  closest  association.    The  children  ^    .  _., 

Social  life 
interested  themselves  m  the  work  of  the  parents, 

and  the  parents  entered  sympathetically  into  the  pastimes 
of  the  children.  They  read  and  sang  together.  The  chil- 
dren had  their  sports  in  fields  and  woods,  appropriate 
to  the  seasons.  For  want  of  other  companions  they  made 
pets  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  An  occasional  traveler 
was  welcomed  in  the  home  with  the  freest  hospitality. 

The  occupations  of  the  day  were  carried  on  in  regular 
order;  each  had  his  special  duties  to  perform  at  certain 
times.  The  children  rendered  obedience  to  their  Govem- 
parents.  The  father  was  the  recognized  head  of  ™ent 
the  family.  His  word  was  law.  Yet  he  constantly  had  the 
best  interests  of  the  family  at  heart,  and  was  kind  and 
thoughtful  with  all  his  sternness. 

Such  was  the  life  of  the  pioneer  family.  It  was  crude 
and  imperfect ;  but  you  see  that  all  the  kinds  of  desires  that 
men  have  were  provided  for  more  or  less  completely  within 
the  family  itself.  It  looked  after  the  protection  of  life 
and  health,  the  production  of  wealth,  the  education,  the 
religious  training,  and  the  social  life  of  its  members. 

In  the  course  of  time  other  families  came  into  the  neigh- 
borhood.    Then    an  organization  into  a   larger  ^j^^  f^mUy 
community  began.     The  settlers  rendered  aid  to  relieved  by 
each  other  in  building  houses  and  gathering  crops,   zation^of^a 
Many  of   the  occupations   formerly  carried   on  larger 
in  the  family  were  now  transferred  to  members  *^°™™" 
of    the    community    who    made    these   occupations    their 


26  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

business.  A  school  was  organized  to  provide  a  better 
education  than  could  be  offered  in  the  home,  and  a 
church  was  built  at  the  crossroads.  A  government  also 
was  organized. 

Although,  as  a  community  grows,  various  means  arise 
to  help  the  family  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  its  members, 
the  family  must  always  bear  an  important  part  of 
sibUity  of  the  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of  its  members, 
the  family  -^^  matter  how  good  the  doctors,  the  health  of 
the  people  in  any  community  depends  more  on  the  family 
than  on  anything  else.  No  matter  how  efficient  the  schools, 
a  great  responsibihty  rests  on  the  family  for  the  proper 
education  of  the  children.  No  matter  how  many  social 
organizations  there  may  be  in  the  community,  the  social 
life  of  the  home  is  the  most  important  of  all  and  the  most 
far-reaching  in  its  results.  No  matter  how  excellent  the 
government  of  a  community  may  be,  it  can  have  little 
good  result  if  the  government  in  the  home  is  lacking. 
The  surest  way  to  secure  good  government  in  the  com- 
munity is  through  careful  government  in  the  homes  that 
make  up  the  community.  No  matter  how  large  the  com- 
munity, or  how  completely  it  is  organized,  the  family  re- 
mains one  of  the  most  itnportant  means  to  provide  for  the 
wants  of  the  citizens. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  family  life  in  the  pioneer  days  of 
your  own  community  :  the  kind  of  dwellings  ;  where  the  food  supply  came 
from  ;  how  health  was  cared  for ;  the  occupations  in  the  household ; 
what  was  done  to  beautify  the  home ;  the  social  amusements. 

2.  Show  to  what  extent  the  needs  of  a  farmer's  family  in  your  own 
neighborhood  are  satisfied  by  its  own  efforts. 

3.  Observe  whether  your  own  family  is  chiefly  dependent  on  itself 
for  its  needs,  or  depends  on  arrangements  supplied  by  the  commu- 
nity. 


THE   FAMILY  2/ 

4.  Compare  the  advantages  of  the  average  country  family  with  those 
of  the  average  city  family,  with  respect  to  satisfying  the  desires  of  life. 
Or,  debate  the  question  :  Home  life  in  the  country  has  greater  advan- 
tages than  home  life  in  the  city. 

5.  Study  the  way  in  which  the  average  family  governs  itself.  Why 
is  this  government  necessary? 

6.  Are  there  in  your  community  many  people  without  homes,  as 
explained  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter? 

REFERENCES 

Sec  references  under  Chapter  I. 

Beard,  "American  Citizenship,"  pp.  21-32.  Different  kinds  ot 
homes. 

Beard,  "American  City  Government,"  pp.  1-30.  Family  life  in 
cities. 

Gillette,  "Constructive  Rural  Sociology,"  pp.  57-76.  Advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  farm  life. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  HOME  AND   THE   COMMUNITY 
"No  nation  can  be  destroyed  while  it  possesses  a  good  home  life." 

The  normal  family  not  only  does  much  to  provide  for 
the  welfare  of  the  individual,  but  it  also  performs  certain 
valuable  services  for  the  community  as  a  whole. 

In  the  first  place,  the  family  has  been  called  "  a  school 
of  all  the  virtues"  that  go  to  make  good  citizenship.  It 
The  famUy  is  a  school  in  which  not  only  the  children,  but 
*h^Tr^  also  the  parents,  are  trained  for  citizenship, 
citizens  It  has  been  said  that  if  a  man  is  a  good  hus- 

band, a  good  father,  a  good  son,  or  a  good  brother, 
the  probability  is  that  he  will  also  be  a  good  citizen  in  tlie 
community.  And  we  must  not  forget  the  wives,  mothers, 
daughters,  and  sisters.  The  quality  of  the  citizenship 
of  the  women  of  a  community  is  perhaps  shown  more 
in  their  family  life  than  that  of  the  men,  because  such 
a  large  part  of  their  lives  is  spent  in  the  family  and  the 
household,  and  also  because  their  influence  there  is  so 
great  in  molding  the  character  of  the  men.  In  the  family 
are  developed  thoughtfulness  for  others,  the  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice,  loyalty  to  the  group  of  which  the  individual  is  a 
member,  respect  for  the  opinions  of  those  of  long  ex- 
perience, obedience  to  the  head  of  the  family  and  to  the 
rules  which  have  been  established  for  the  welfare  of  all. 
If  these  and  other  qualities  of  good  citizenship  are   not 

28 


THE    HOME    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 


29 


cultivated   there,  the   family  is  not  in  a  healthy  condition, 
and  is  not  doing  its  full  service  to  the  community. 

There  is  no  other  kind  of  property  that  gives  such  satis- 
faction to  the  owner  as  a  home.  Men  usually  look  forward 
with  eagerness  to  the  time  when  they  can  own  The  owning 
their  homes,  and  take  great  pride  in  that  owner-  of  a  home 
ship  when  it  is  acquired.  Many  famiUes  live  in  homes 
which  thev  do  not  themselves  own  ;  they  rent  from  others. 
When  that  is 
the  case,  there 
is  lacking  one 
of  the  strongest 
influences  that 
make  the  home 
life  complete. 
The  ownership 
of  a  home  adds 
another  bond  of 
union  among  the 
members  of  the  family  through  the  common  interest  which 
it  affords.  A  man  has  a  greater  interest  in  improving 
and  beautifying  a  home  that  he  owns  than  one  that  he 
rents  from  another. 

A  family  that  owns  its  home  will  usually  take  a  greater 
interest  in  the  community  in  which  it  lives  than  the  family 
that  owns  no  home.  It  feels  a  se-nse  of  proprie-  Creates 
torship  in  a  part  of  the  community  land.  The  |||^^^r* 
value  of  a  home  will  increase  in  proportion  to  community 
the  prosperity  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  Its  owner 
will  therefore  be  inclined  to  do  all  he  can  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  community  for  the  sake  of  his  family.  A 
community  that  is  made  up  largely  of  homes  owned  by 
their  occupants  is  likely  to  be  prosperous  on  this  account, 


Modest  Home. 


30 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


A  Wretched  Dwelling. 


and  its  citizens  will  be  loyal  to  it.     This  is  why  the  commu. 

nity  mentioned  in  the  first  chapter  has  reason  to  boast  that 

it  is  a  city  of  homes. 

In  large  cities,  where  people  are  crowded  together  in  a 

comparatively  small  area,  it  is  difficult  for  all  to  get  pos- 
session of  a  piece  of 
ground  suitable  for  a 
home.  The  land,  being 
in  great  demand,  be- 
comes very  valuable,  so 
that  many  families  are 
unable  to  buy  it,  or  even 
to  pay  the  necessary 
price  for  the  use  of  it. 

The  result  is  that  such  families  are  driven  to  make  their 

homes  in  the  least  desirable  localities  in  the  community. 
They  may  resort  to  the  lowlands  along  a  river 

Dangers  to  ■'  ■'  •  i  i.u      i       j 

home  life  fiowing  through  the  community,  where  the  land 
in  cities  ig  unhealthful  and  in  danger  of  floods.  In  some 
river  towns  most  wretched  dwelling  places  may  be  found 
in  such  localities.  In  large  cities  many  families  are  often 
crowded  together  in  buildings  owned  by  men  who  can  get 
better  returns  by  charging  small  rents  to  many  families 
than  they  could  by  charging  larger  rents  to  a  few.  These 
crowded  dwelling  places,  which  often  do  not  deserve  the 
name  of  homes,  are  called  tenements,  and  the  section  of 
the  city  where  the  crowding  is  the  worst  and  the  buildings 
are  the  poorest  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  slums. 
These  tenement  dwellings  involve  all  sorts  of  evils.  Where 
so  many  families  live  in  one  building,  and  where  many 
buildings  are  crowded  together  without  space  between, 
there  cannot  be  the  privacy  that  is  essential  to  good  home 
life.     Such  conditions  are  also  detrimental  to  health.    The 


THE  HOME  AND  THE  COMMUNITY       31 

sunlignt  never  penetrates  to  the  interior  of  some  of  these 
buildings.  They  are  ill-ventilated  and  unsanitary.  There 
is  no  room  for  playgrounds  for  the  children.  Among  a 
crowd  of  people  in  such  wretched  dwellings  there  are  al- 
ways many  ignorant,  immoral,  and  vicious  persons,  who 
have  a  bad  influence  upon  others  with  whom  they  are  con- 
stantly thrown.  Criminals  often  find  a  safe  hiding  place 
in  the  dark  and  crowded  tenements  of  the  slums. 

Families  living  in  such  conditions  as  we  have  described 
are  less  likely  to  take  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
community  and  to  contribute  to  its  well-being,  xhe  burden 
On  the  other  hand,  their  part  of  the  community  of  the  worst 
is  a  constant  burden  and  menace  to  the  whole  up^^the^ 
community.  Fires  are  likely  to  start  among  the  whole 
crowded  and  poorly  constructed  buildings,  and  '^°™™"'^'^ 
to  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  city.  The  unsanitary  con- 
ditions invite  epidemics  of  disease,  which  may  not  easily 
be  restricted  to  the  district  where  they  originate.  Dis- 
order, vice,  and  crime  are  more  frequent  there,  requiring 
police  supervision,  which  has  to  be  paid  for  by  the  whole 
community.  In  many  ways  the  possessor  of  the  good  home 
in  the  better  part  of  the  city  has  to  bear  the  burden  of, 
and  help  pay  for,  the  existence  of  these  poor  homes.  A 
very  large  part  of  the  expense  of  government  could  be 
avoided  if  the  poor  homes  of  the  city  could  be  converted 
into  pleasant  homes,  with  plenty  of  room,  light,  and  fresh 
air.  Much  of  government  is  made  necessary  in  ^ 
order  to  take  the  place  of  what  is  lacking  in  the  and  the 
home  life  of  the  community.  °™® 

In  many  large  cities  a  movement  has  been  begun  for 
the  improvement  of  conditions  in  the  tenement  districts. 
The  old,  unhealthful  tenements  are  being  removed  and 
better  ones  built.     More  sunlight  is  being  let  in  and  better 


32  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

plumbing   introduced.     Open  courts,  or  yards,  are   pro- 
vided in  order   that  the   people  may  get    out   of    doors. 
,     Parks  and    playgrounds   are   being    established 

Movement  t      J  o  . 

toward  in  the  vicinity  of  the  crowded  districts.  The 
reform  introduction  of  rapid  transportation  has  done 
much  to  induce  people  to  move  out  to  the  suburbs,  where 
life  is  more  healthful  and  where  conditions  are  better  for 
home  life. 

It  is  much  better,  however,  to  prevent  wretched  home 
conditions  from  gaining  a  foothold  in  the  community  than 
to  have  to  correct  them  after  they  have  appeared.  They 
are  conditions  that  tend  to  appear  wherever  the  population 
is  rapidly  increasing.  Some  of  our  city  and  state  govern- 
ments have  taken  hold  of  the  problem  of  the  tenement, 
and    laws    have    been    passed,    prohibiting  the 

Laws  pro-  ,        „.  .  ,  £c    •      ^ 

tectingthe  building  of  dwellmgs  without  sutticient  space 
^°™^  around  them  to  admit  light  and  air,  requiring 

good  sanitation,  and  forbidding  the  overcrowding  of  peo- 
ple in  a  single  building.  Unfortunately  these  laws  are 
violated,  and  the  government  frequently  fails  to  enforce 
them.  In  the  smaller  cities,  where  such  conditions  have 
not  become  sufficiently  apparent  to  attract  notice,  there 
are  often  very  few  laws  upon  the  subject.  It  is  in  these 
cities  that  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  dangerous  tenements,  by  the  enactment  of  pre- 
ventive laws. 

It  is  not  merely  the  character  of  the  dwelling,  however, 
that  is  of  concern  to  the  community.  In  recent  years 
many  laws  have  been  enacted  to  protect  the  breadwinners 
of  families  against  accident  or  the  contracting  of  disease  in 
their  occupations ;  to  shorten  the  hours  of  labor,  so  that 
workmen  may  have  more  leisure  time  for  recreation  and 
self-improvement;    to  reduce  the  hardships  of    women's 


THE  HOME  AND  THE  COMMUNITY       33 

work;  to  abolish  child  labor;  to  secure  the  payment  of 
just  wages  so  as  to  assure  a  proper  standard  of  living  ; 
and  in  other  ways  to  insure  a  better  home  life  as  the 
foundation  of  a  wholesome  community  life  and  of  good 
citizenship. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  unwholesome  family  life 
is  restricted  wholly  to  the  homes  of  the  poor.  Some  of 
the  worst  homes  are  occasionally  found  in  surroundings 
of  luxury.  Unless  the  relations  between  husband  and 
wife,  between  parents  and  children,  and  between  brothers 
and  sisters,  are  of  the  right  kind,  the  home  will  be  imper- 
fect, even  though  it  be  sheltered  in  a  beautiful  dwelling ; 
and  it  will  fail  to  perform  its  best  service  to  the  com- 
munity. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Do  most  of  the  people  in  your  neighborhood  own  their  homes,  or 
do  they  rent  ?  Can  you  give  illustrations  to  show  that  home  owners 
take  a  greater  interest  in  the  community  than  those  who  rent  ? 

2.  Is  there  some  section  of  your  community  where  most  of  the  peo- 
ple own  their  homes,  and  another  section  where  most  of  the  people 
rent  ?  If  so.  do  you  notice  any  diiTerence  in  the  general  appearance  of 
the  two  sections  ?  Do  you  think  that  the  diflerence.  if  any,  is  due  in 
any  part  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  people  own  and  some  rent  ? 

3.  In  the  back  of  the  book  (page  299)  there  is  a  table  showing  the 
number  of  homes  owned  and  the  number  rented  in  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  having  100.000  population  or  over. 

a.  Find  the  city  having  the  smallest  per  cent  of  homes  owned. 
How  do  you  account  for  the  small  per  cent  in  this  city? 

b.  Find  cities  having  large  per  cents  of  homes  owned.  Can  you 
account  for  this  from  what  you  know  of  these  cities  ? 

c.  Can  you  account  for  the  fact  that  Washington,  D.C.,  has  such  a 
large  per  cent  of  rented  homes? 

d.  Find  out  for  what  Fall  River.  Mass.,  is  noted.  Do  you  think 
there  is  any  relation  between  this  fact  and  the  large  number  of  hired 
homes? 

e.  Find  the  figures  of  your  own  city,  if  it  is  in  the  table,  or  the  nearest 
one  to  you,  and  compare  it  with  other  cities  of  about  the  same  size. 


34  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

4.  Observe  the  character  of  the  homes  (dwellings,  yards,  gardens), 
as  you  pass  from  the  center  of  your  city  to  its  outskirts.  Is  there  any 
dilTerence  in  their  appearance?     If  so.  why  is  it? 

5.  Is  there  any  tendency  for  farmers'  families  in  your  neighborhood 
to  move  to  the  city?  If  so,  try  to  find  the  reasons  for  it.  What  be- 
comes of  their  farms  when  the  families  move  away? 

6.  Is  there  any  tendency  for  families  in  the  city  to  move  toward  the 
outskirts  of  the  city,  or  to  the  suburbs?  If  so,  why?  Is  it  chiefly  the 
poorer  people  or  the  well-to-do?  What  happens  to  their  old  dwellings 
in  the  center  of  the  city? 

7.  Are  flats  and  apartment  buildings  being  erected  to  any  extent  in 
your  community?  If  so,  try  to  find  the  causes.  What  are  some  of  the 
effects  on  family  life  of  dwelling  in  flats? 

8.  What  is  being  done  in  your  community  to  improve  the  home  life 
of  the  poorest  families? 

9.  Can  you  think  of  any  public  institutions  in  your  commu- 
nity that  are  made  necessary  by  imperfect  conditions  of  home 
life? 

10.  If  there  is  no  law  forbidding  it,  has  a  man  the  right  to  make  all 
the  money  he  can  by  crowding  as  many  tenants  into  a  house  as  it  will 
hold  ?     Explain. 

11.  Show  how  good  home  life  tends  to  decrease  the  need  for  gov- 
ernment. 

12.  Are  there  any  tenement-house  laws  in  your  community?  If  so, 
what  are  some  of  the  most  important? 


REFERENCES 

Riis,  Jacob  A.,  "  How  the  Other  Half  Lives." 

Riis,  Jacob  A.,  "The  Battle  with  the  Slums." 

Mr.  Riis's  books  are  very  interesting  and  helpful  to  an  understanding 
of  the  conditions  of  the  slums. 

Cope,  Henry  F.,  ''  The  Home  as  the  School  of  Social  Living,"  pub- 
lished by  American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia,  1910. 

Hamilton,  John,  "What  the  Government  is  Doing  and  Should  Do 
for  Home  and  Children,"  in  National  Congress  of  Mothers  Magazine, 
June,  1909,  pp.  288-293. 

Henderson,  "The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  II:  "Home- 
Making  as  a  Social  Art,"  and  chapter  IV  :  "  Better  Houses  for  the 
People." 

"  Slums  of  Great  Cities,"  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor,  by  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  Washington,  1894. 


THE    HOME    AND    THE   COMMUNITY 


35 


*'  Housing  of  the  Working  People,"  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Labor,  by  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  1895. 

'•  Housing  and  Town  Planning,""  Annals  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  January,  1914 

"  Housing  Problems  in  America,"  Proceedings  of  the  Second  National 
Conference  on  Housing,  1912. 

"  Homesteads  for  Workingmen,"  Labor  Bulletin  No.  88,  January, 
191 2,  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

The  Survey,  published  weekly  at  105  E.  22d  Street,  New  York  City, 
is  a  useful  journal  in  connection  with  many  phases  of  civic  and  .social 
life.     Its  numbers  contain  material  on  the  subject  of  this  chapter. 


A  Tenement  Back  Yard. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   MAKING   OF  AMERICANS 

Next  to  the  ties  of  family  relationship,  those  of  common 
nationality  and  language  are  perhaps  the  strongest  in  bind- 
The  bond  of  ing  people  together  in  groups.  Americans  in 
nationality  foreign  citics  usually  drift  together  and  take  lodg- 
ings in  the  same  locality.  When  foreigners  come  to  this 
country,  they  tend  to  group  themselves  together  according 
to  their  nationality  or  language.  This  kind  of  grouping 
may  assume  great  importance  in  a  country  Hke  ours,  where 
many  thousands  of  foreigners  are  pouring  in  upon  us  every 
year. 

America  has  always  been  a  land  of  opportunity,  and 
millions  of  people  have  come  here  from  foreign  lands  for  the 
The  foreign  purpose  of  bettering  their  condition.  Some  have 
the"united  ^ome,  hke  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth,  for  rehgious 
States  freedom.    Others  have  come,  like  the  founders  of 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  for  political  freedom.  Many 
more  have  come  merely  to  better  their  material  welfare. 
Thousands  are  coming  every  year  because  here  work 
is  plentiful,  and  the  opportunity  is  great  to  earn,  not  merely 
a  living,  but  land  and  a  home  with  comforts  that  were  im- 
possible in  their  native  lands.  In  the  ten  years  from  1901 
to  1910,  8,795,386  immigrants  entered  the  United  States, 
and  in  the  three  years  following  (1911-13)  almost  3,000,- 
000  more  arrived.^  Among  them  are  representatives  of 
every  country  of  Europe  and  many  from  other  lands. 

1  See  Appendix,  pp.  300-304,  Tables  of  Immigration. 
36 


THE    MAKING    OF    AMERICANS 


37 


The  tendency  of  these  incoming  foreigners  is  to  drift  to 
sections  of  the  United  States,  or  of  the  large  cities,  where 
large  numbers  of  their  countrymen  have  already   Digtnbu- 
made  their  homes.     There  are  sections  of  the  tionof 
states  of  the  Northwest,  for  example,  where  al-  ^°''«'8°ers 
most  the  entire  population  is  Scandinavian,  as  in  parts  of 
Minnesota.     In  other  states  we  may  often  find  large  farm- 
ing communities  of  Scotch  or  of  Germans,  as  in   parts  of 


Immigrants  awaiting  Inspection  at  Ellis  Island, 
New  York  Harbor. 


Illinois  and  Pennsylvania.  In  some  of  the  coal-mining 
regions,  as  in  western  Pennsylvania  and  in  West  Virginia, 
there  is  a  large  population  from  the  Slavic  countries  of  cen- 
tral and  eastern  Europe.      Manufacturing  towns  often  have 


38  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 

large  populations  of  some  one  nationality,  like  the  Belgian 
glass-workers  in  some  parts  of  Indiana.  In  cities,  where 
many  foreigners  settle,  they  usually  arrange  themselves  by 
nationality  in  different  sections  of  the  city.  Thus  we  find 
in  New  York  a  section  occupied  almost  exclusively  by 
Italians,  another  by  Chinese,  another  by  Greeks,  another 
by  Jews,  and  so  on. 

These  different  nationalities  not  only  tend  to  live  in 
groups,  but  they  also  think  and  act  in  groups.  It  is  very 
Foreign  commou  to  hear  at  election  time  of  the  "German 
within  the  vote"  and  the  "  Irish  vote."  There  are  also  dif- 
nationtend    ferences  in  ideas  of  thrift  and  industry,  in  forms 

to  act  as  .  ■' 

units  of  architecture,  in  home  life,  and  in  many  other 

ways.  One  section  of  a  city  may  be  thrifty  and  law-abid- 
ing because  of  the  habits  of  the  nationality  occupying  it, 
while  another  section  will  be  unsightly  and  disorderly. 

There  might  be  great  danger  to  the  peace  and  unity  of 
the  United  States  through  the  immigration  of  so  many 
The  United  foreigners,  if  they  actually  remained  for  any 
nation  of  length  of  time  as  distinct  national  groups  within 
foreigners  our  Country.  But  this  is  not  usually  the  case. 
Most  of  these  immigrants  begin  a  process  of  transforma- 
tion from  Germans,  Irish,  Poles,  or  whatever  their  nation- 
ality, into  Americans,  almost  as  soon  as  they  have  landed. 
We  aie  a  nation  of  foreigners.  Many  Americans  do  not 
have  to  go  back  very  far  until  they  find  some  ancestor 
just  immigrating  into  this  country  from  a  foreign  land. 
The  hundreds  of  thousands  who  are  coming  to  our  shores 

The  growth  ^^'^  y^^^  ^'^^^'  ^^  ^^^  course  of  a  few  years,  be 
of  common  proud  of  the  name  of  American ;  and  their 
interests  children,  born  here,  will  not  be  distinguishable 
from  the  great  mass  of  Americans.  This  breaking  down 
of   the  differences  between   the    nationalities  within    our 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS 


39 


An     iMMKiKANT    FaMII.V. 

country  is  due  to  the  (growth  of  common  interests  amonj^ 
all  who  live  here.  All  came  here  for  greater  freedom  of  re- 
ligion, of  political  belief,  of  labor.  Our  government  allows 
to  all  equal  opportunities  and  equal  rights. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  change  in   the 
character  of  the  immigration  to  this  country.     Formerly 
most  of  our  immigrants  came  from  northern  and  Change  in 
western   Europe  —  the  British   Islands,  Scandi-  type  of  im- 
navia,  Germany,     At  present  the  countries  of  ™^* 
southern  and   eastern   Europe  are  sending  us  the  great 
multitudes  —  Russia,    Poland,    Italy,    Greece   (see   tables, 
pp.  300-302).     These  southern  and  eastern  peoples  differ 
greatly  from  the  northern  and  western  peoples  in  physical 
appearance  and  in   language,  thus  making  more  difficult 
the  blending  of  the  population.     They  also  differ  in  their 
social  and  political  experience,  in  their  industrial  skill  and 


40  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

standards  of  living.  The  majority  of  them  are  unskilled 
laborers.  A  much  smaller  percentage  remain  in  this  country 
to  establish  homes  than  is  the  case  with  the  earlier  immi- 
grants.    They  are  also  more  slow  to  become  legal  citizens. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  mere 
difference  of  language  and  customs  by  no  means  implies 
What  the  inferiority  of  character  or  ability.  It  some- 
immigrant  ^j,-,^gs  happens  that  immigrants  who  have  diffi- 
him  culty  in  finding  suitable  occupations,  or  who  are 

forced  to  take  the  work  of  day  laborers  to  earn  their  living, 
are  perhaps  skilled  in  some  special  vocation,  or  talented 
in  music  or  art,  but  are  prevented  from  finding  their  proper 
places  merely  through  ignorance  of  our  language  and  cus- 
toms. They  come  from  countries  whose  histories  are 
much  longer  than  ours  and  often  represent  civilizations  in 
many  respects  richer  than  our  own.  The  great  majority 
of  those  who  enter  come  with  the  same  noble  desire  for 
liberty  that  inspired  the  early  colonists.  In  our  pride  in 
our  own  country  and  its  people,  its  language  and  its  in- 
stitutions, we  must  not  underestimate  the  value  of  what 
the  immigrant  may  bring  to  us.  While  hastening  in  eve-ry 
possible  way  the  adjustment  of  the  immigrant  to  the  spirit 
of  American  life,  we  should,  in  turn,  respect  the  heritage 
that  he  brings  with  him  and  profit  by  the  good  that  he  has 
to  offer.  Not  only  is  he  to  be  made  into  an  American ;  he 
is  also  to  help  make  America. 

There  are  certain  classes  of  foreigners  whom  our  gov- 
ernment does  not  permit  to  enter,  or  who  may  be  returned 

„,  ,      to  their  native  countries  if  they  succeed  in  land- 

Classes  of  .... 

immigrants    ing  by  eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  immigration 

exclude  officers.     Idiots  or  insane  persons,  persons  af- 

flicted with  dangerous  contagious  diseases,  paupers  and  pro- 
fessional beggars,  persons  who  for  any  reason  are  unable 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS  4I 

to  care  for  themselves  and  are  likely  to  become  a  public 
charge,  criminals,  grossly  immoral  persons,  persons  brought 
over  under  contract  to  perform  any  kind  of  labor,  are  the 
principal  classes  excluded.  During  the  year  ending  June, 
1913,  19,605  such  persons  were  prevented  from  landing, 
and  3,461  were  sent  back  after  having  landed. 


<'"pyriiih(  hy  American  PreHS  Assnciation. 

U.S.  Immigrant  Station,  Ellis  Island. 

View  from  an  aeroiilane. 

In  1882  Congress  passed  a  law  known  as  the  Chinese 
Exclusion  Act.  This  is  the  only  case  in  which  our  gov- 
ernment has  excluded  a  nationality.  The  chief  reason  for 
it  in  this  case  is  that  the  Chinese  fail  to  become  American- 
ized in  any  degree.  They  remain  a  completely  foreign 
community  on  American  shores,  widely  different  in  race, 
language,  and  habits,  while  they  supplant  American  labor- 
ers on  the  farms,  in  the  mines,  and  in  other  occupations 
through  their  willingness  to  work  for  lower  wages. 

Should  immigration  be  further  restricted  ?     And,  if  so, 
by  what  means  ?     In  1907  an  Immigration  Com- 
mission of  nine  members  was  created  by  Con-  ^gstriction 
gress  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  problem. 
In  its  report  the  Commission  said,  "While  the  American 


42  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 

people,  as  in  the  past,  welcome  the  oppressed  of  other 
lands,  care  should  be  taken  that  immigration  be  such  both 
in  quality  and  quantity  as  not  to  make  too  difficult  the 
process  of  assimilation."  One  of  the  methods  most  often 
suggested  to  keep  out  undesirable  immigrants  is  to  exclude 
all  who  cannot  read  or  write  in  some  language.  Other 
methods  proposed  are  to  increase  the  "head  tax"  that 
each  immigrant  is  required  to  pay  on  entering,  to  increase 
the  amount  of  money  that  each  immigrant  must  have  in 
his  possession  when  he  lands,  or  to  exclude  all  unskilled 
laborers  who  are  not  accompanied  by  their  wives  or  fam- 
ilies. 

To  hasten  the  process  of  "assimilation,"  it  is  also  im- 
portant that  the  immigrants  should  be  distributed  through 
Distribution  ^^^  country  where  their  services  are  most 
of  needed  and  where  their  own  opportunities  for 

imnugrants  g^^^^^ggg  g^j-g  greatest.  The  crowding  of  large 
numbers  of  immigrants  in  colonies  in  the  large  cities  not 
only  makes  our  own  city  problems  more  difficult,  but  it 
also  makes  it  more  difficult  for  the  immigrants  themselves 
to  obtain  desirable  homes  and  occupations,  and  retards 
their  assimilation  with  the  American  people.  The  United 
States  Bureau  of  Immigration,  in  cooperation  with  the 
state  governments,  is  seeking  to  distribute  the  immigrants 
to  the  best  advantage  of  themselves  and  of  the  nation. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  says:  "All  per- 
sons born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
Naturaii-  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the 
zation  United    States   and  of  the  state  wherein  they 

reside"  (Amendment  XIV).  In  order  to  become  legal 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  therefore,  persons  born  in 
foreign  countries  must  go  through  the  process  of  naturali- 
zation.    They  must  have  lived  in  the  United   States  at 


THE   MAKING   OF   AMERICANS  43 

least  five  years  and  in  the  state  one  year,  and  must  have 
declared,  before  a  court,  their  intention  of  becoming  citi- 
zens at  least  two  years  before  their  citizenship  papers  arc 
given  to  them.  They  must  also  prove  good  character  and 
declare  their  intention  of  observing  the  principles  of  the 
Constitution.  They  then  have  all  the  rights  of  native- 
born  citizens,  except  that  they  may  not  hold  the  office  of 
President  or  Vice-President. 

Women  may  be  naturalized  as  well  as  men ;  but  a 
woman  becomes  a  citizen  without  naturalization  when  her 
husband  is  naturalized,  or  when  she  marries  a  citizen. 
Children  under  twenty-one  years  of  age  also  become  legal 
citizens  by  the  naturalization  of  their  parents.  On  the 
other  hand,  children  born  abroad  of  parents  who  are  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
in  spite  of  their  foreign  birth. 

The  privilege  of  naturalization  has  not  been  extended 
to  members  of  the  Mongolian  race. 

Persons  of  foreign  birth  who  have  not  been  naturalized 
are  known  as  a/iois.  There  are  several  millions  of  aliens 
residing  in  our  country.  They  enjoy  almost,  although  not 
quite,  all  the  privileges  of  citizens.  They  are  entitled  to  full 
protection  of  their  lives  and  property  by  our 
government ;  they  may  move  freely  about  the 
country  and  engage  in  business ;  they  are  entitled  to  all 
the  privileges  of  the  state  courts,  and  to  some  privileges 
of  the  national  courts ;  they  have  freedom  of  religious 
belief.  In  some  states  there  are  restrictions  against  the 
holding  of  real  estate  by  aliens ;  but  many  states  allow  it 
and  by  the  Homestead  Act  (see  page  48)  Congress  has 
given  millions  of  acres  to  them.  In  some  states  aliens  may 
even  vote  for  state  and  national  officers  after  having  de- 
clared their  intention  of  becoming  citizens. 


44  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 

In  the  development  of  our  great  country,  with  its  vast 
areas  of  land  to  be  reduced  to  the  use  of  man,  and  with  its 
•It  is  abundant  resources  of  all  kinds,  it  has  always 

'-S  that  thT^  been  considered  desirable  that  foreigners  should 
foreigners  come  to  our  land  to  make  it  their  home.  But  it 
fo^rmed  into  ^^  plain  that  if  they  are  to  be  valuable  members 
Americans  of  our  community,  they  must  have  or  acquire 
full  sympathy  with  our  American  ideas.  They  must  be- 
come blended  with  the  mass  of  Americans  among 
whom  they  live,  and  become  Americans  themselves,  not 
merely  in  dress  and  language,  but  in  their  spirit  and  prin- 
ciples. Down  to  the  present  time  this  blending  has  gone 
on  easily  and  rapidly,  because  the  great  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation has  always  been  native  born.  With  the  increasing 
tide  of  immigration  from  foreign  lands  the  problem  be- 
comes more  serious,  and  calls  for  greater  caution  on  the 
part  of  government  as  to  the  admission  of  immigrants. 
Most  of  those  who  come  will  undoubtedly  make  excellent 
citizens.  But  there  are  many  who  will  contribute  nothing 
to  our  welfare,  and  some  who  will  even  antagonize  the  law 
and  order  which  are  so  necessary  in  a  community. 

It  is  necessary  that  every  means  be  adopted  to  instruct 
those  who  come  to  ouV  land  in  the  ideals  of  American 
The  citizenship,  and  to    make   of  them  not  merely 

the"puWic°*  partakers  of  our  liberty,  but  contributors  to 
school  our  community  welfare.     The  school  performs 

an  important  service  in  this  direction.  It  not  only  in- 
structs the  children  of  foreigners  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, United  States  history,  and  other  subjects  that 
acquaint  them  with  American  ideas,  but  by  bringing  them 
in  constant  association  with  American  children  the  school 
hastens  the  adoption  of  American  ways.  .  Thus  these  chil- 
dren of  foreigners  are  rapidly  transformed  into  Americans. 


THE   MAKING   OF  AMERICANS 


45 


The  very  nature  of  the  American  government  tends  to 
destroy  all  differences  of  nationality.  It  is  a  fundamental 
idea  of  our  government  that  there  are  certain  ^. 
political  rights  and  privileges  held  by  all  in  com-  influence  of 
mon,  which  it  is  the  business  of  the  government  io^«'''^™^°^ 
to  protect.  Our  government  is  a  strong  bond  of  union,  not 
because  it  holds  us  together  in  a  forced  union,  but  because 
we  all  have  an  equal  interest  and  share  in  its  benefits  and 
responsibilities. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

I.  Let  each  pupil  in  the  class  fill  in  the  following  blank.  Tabulate 
the  results  for  the  whole  class  on  the  blackboard,  in  order  to  show  tlie 
blending  of  nationalities  in  the  present  class  : 


Tahi.e  showing  Nationality  of 


Father 


--I 


Mother 


--I 


Father's  father.  _ 
Father's   mother. 


Mother's  father 

Mother's   mother- 


Father's  grandparents 


Mother's  grandparents 


2.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  nationalities  to  be  found  in  your  com- 
munity. Do  any  of  these  nationalities  tend  to  form  groups  by  them- 
selves? If  so,  show  on  a  map  of  your  community  how  this  grouping  has 
taken  place. 

3.  Is  there  any  farming  community  in  your  neighborhood  composed 
entirely  of  some  one  nationality  ?  Are  there  any  industries  in  your  com- 
munity in  which  the  workmen  are  wholly  or  largely  of  some  foreign 
nationality? 

4.  Do  any  of  the  foreign  nationalities  in  vour  community  tend  to  act 
as  units  {i.e.  the  Irish  by  themselves,  the  Italians  by  themselves)  in 
politics,  in  religious  matters,  or  in  business? 

5.  Are  there  any  communities  in  your  state  composed  largely  of  some 
one  foreign  nationality?  Where  are  they?  Why  did  these  foreigners 
settle  there?    What  are  their  occupations? 


46  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

6.  Gather  some  facts  regarding  the  number  of  immigrants  to  this 
country,  their  nationalities,  their  character  and  conditions,  their  dis- 
tribution through  the  country  and  in  cities.  (See  immigration  tables  in 
the  appendix,  page  301  ;  and  for  further  details,  see  also  the  references 
below.) 

7.  Debate  the  question :  Foreign  immigration  should  be  further  re- 
stricted by  the  United  States. 

8.  Debate  the  question  :  The  Chinese  should  be  allowed  free  admis- 
sion to  the  United  States  as  in  the  case  of  other  foreigners. 

9.  Do  you  think  it  is  right  that  ahens  should  be  allowed  to  vote,  as 
in  some  states  of  the  Union?     Why? 

10.  Look  up  the  subject  of  fraudulent  naturalization.  (See  Mayo- 
Smith,  ''Emigration  and  Immigration,"  pp.  83-85;  Hall,  "Immigra- 
tion," pp.  192-197.) 

1 1 .  Why  would  the  persons  excluded  by  the  methods  mentioned  on 
page  42  be  "undesirable"  immigrants? 

12.  In  the  table,  pages  301-303,  note  the  number  of  each  nationality 
departing  from  this  country  as  compared  with  the  number  entering. 
Which  nationalities  show  the  largest  per  cent  remaining  ?  What 
reasons  can  you  suggest  for  the  large  numbers  departing? 

13.  Report  on  organization  and  work  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Immigration  and  the  method  of  inspecting  immigrants. 

REFERENCES 

Hall.  Prescott  F.,  "Immigration."     Holt  (1906). 

Steiner,  E.  A.,  "On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant,"  Revell  (1906). 

Steiner,  E.  A.,  "The  Immigrant  Tide,"  Revell  (1909). 

Antin,  Mary,  "The  Promised  Land,"  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.  (1912). 

Jenks  and  Lauck,  "The  Immigration  Problem,"  Funk  &  Wagnalls 

(1913)- 

Immigration  Laws.  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  Bureau  of 
Immigration,  1913. 

Naturalization  Laws  and  Regulations,  United  States  Department  of 
Labor,  Bureau  of  Naturalization,  1913. 

In  the  American  Magazine,  beginning  March,  1914,  there  is  an 
interesting  and  suggestive  series  of  articles  by  Mary  Antin  under  the 
general  subject,  "  They  who  Knock  at  our  Gates." 

In  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vols.  63-66  (1903-1905),  there  is  a 
series  of  interesting  articles  on  many  phases  of  immigration  by  Dr.  Allan 
McLaughlin,  of  the  United  States  Marine-Hospital  Service. 

See  also  the  "  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  "  for  current 
articles. 


V 


"> 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HOW   THE    RELATIONS     BETWEEN   THE    PEOPLE    AND 
THE  LAND  ARE  MADE  PERMANENT  AND  DEFINITE 

One  of  the  things  that  distinguish  civiHzed  men  from 
savages  is  the  fixed  and  permanent  character  of  their  com- 
munities. Travelers  through  the  unbroken  wil-  civilization 
derness  of  America  before  its  settlement  by  white  marked  by 
men  reported  that  they  saw  many  deserted  o^^mmun- 
villages.  The  hunting  life  of  the  Indians  made  '^^^^ 
a  fixed  dwelling  place  undesirable,  if  not  impossible.  Their 
organization  into  clans  and  tribes  made  it  of  little  impor- 
tance whether  they  lived  in  one  place  or  another.  In 
civilized  communities,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  is  divided 
into  wards,  and  townships,  and  counties,  and  states  ;  and 
citizens  have  certain  rights  and  duties  which  they  can 
enjoy,  or  exercise,  only  in  that  division  of  the  land  where 
they  live  permanently.  In  the  development  of  man,  every 
step  that  united  him  more  closely  with  the  land  was  a 
step  in  the  direction  of  civilization,  as  when  he  passed 
from  the  life  of  the  hunter  to  that  of  the  herdsman,  or 
from  the  life  of  the  herdsman  to  that  of  the  farmer.  ' 

The  community  described   in  the  first  chapter  did  not 
pitch  its  tents  with  the  idea  of  soon  moving  on.     It  made 
arrangements  to  become  a  permanent  commu-   perma- 
nity  with   definite  boundaries  and  divisions   of   "^"" 

1       J     /  \         A  •  1     ai™ed  at  in 

land  (see  page  3).  A  community  grows  and  founding  a 
prospers  in  proportion  as  the  people  and  the  co°imuii»^ 
land  unite  definitely  and  permanently. 

47 


48  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  family  helps  to  bring  about  this  union  in  a  very  im- 
portant way  through  the  building  of  a  home  (see  page  29). 
The  service  When  the  European  nations  were  attempting  to 
'f^^?  ■         colonize  America,  many  of  the  first  settlements 

family  in  -' 

this  respect  failed,  chiefly  because  the  settlers  were  adven- 
turers who  had  no  intention  of  building  homes  here.  It 
soon  became  apparent  to  the  English  that  if  they  were  to 
have  permanent  settlements  in  this  country,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  induce  men  to  bring  their  families  and  found 
jaermanent  homes. 

In  the  course  of  its  history  our  nation  has  come  into 
possession  of  vast  territories  that  would  be  useless  if  they 
The  were  not  occupied  by  a  population  that  would 

settlement  develop  their  resources.  Our  government  has 
national  hastened  the  occupation  of  this  land  by  appeal- 
domain  ing  to  men's  desire  to  own  homes.  To  the  men 
who  fought  in  the  Revolutionary  War  the  government  gave 
about  10,000,000  acres  of  land  for  settlement,  and  to  the 
veterans  of  the  Mexican  War  60,000,000  acres,  or  about 
as  much  as  is  comprised  in  the  two  states  of  Indiana  and 
Illinois.  In  1862  Congress  passed  the  Homestead  Act, 
which  provided  that  any  head  of  a  family  might  receive  a 
quarter-section  of  land  (160  acres)  if  he  would  Hve  on  it 
for  five  years  and  pay  a  small  fee.  Under  this  law  about 
200,000,000  acres  have  been  disposed  of  for  settlement,  or 
nearly  as  much  as  the  land  included  in  the  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Michigan. 
Besides  this,  large  areas  have  been  sold  to  individuals  at 
the  low  price  of  from  $1.25  to  $2.50  per  acre.  Not  only 
farming  land,  but  land  rich  in  timber  and  minerals  has  thus 
been  made  productive.  More  than  150,000,000  acres  have 
been  given  by  the  government  to  some  of  the  great  West- 
ern railroads,  which  have  performed  a  valuable  service  in 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND 


49 


opening  and  developing  the  new  lands.  The  nation  has 
been  enriched,  while  at  the  same  time  individuals,  families, 
and  business  enterprises  have  been  benefited.  In  191 3 
there  were  in  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska  and 
our  new  island  possessions,  297,927,203  acres  of  land  still 
jopen  to  settlement. 


4 

Y 

X 

z 

3 

2 

BAS 

E 

1 
LI 

NE 

4 

3 

2 

1 
1 

2 

3 

4 

0 

■z. 

2 

Z 

a: 
a. 

3 

W 

4 

I.   X    is  township   3  north  in  range  3  west 

V    "  "           4      "  "      "  4  east 

Z    "  "           2  south  "      "  2      " 

W  "  "           4       "  "  "  3  west. 

After  the  Revolutionary  War  settlers  began  to  enter  the 
Ohio  Valley  and  claim  land  for  farms.  Each  settler  laid 
out  his  own  farm  with  little  regard  to  the  claims  xhegov-  '/ 
of  others.  The  result  was  great  confusion  and  emment 
many  disputes  over  boundary  lines.  The  govern-  ^""^^^ 
ment  finally  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  affairs  by  making 
a  survey  of  the  whole  region  and  establishing  lines  by 
means  of  which  land  could  be  located  with  certainty. 
The  accompanying  diagrams  will  help  to  make  clear  the 
plan.  The  survey  was  begun  by  establishing  certain 
north  and  south  lines  called  principal  meridians.     There 


50 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


are  now  twenty-four  of  these,  the  first  being  the  Hne  that 
separates  Ohio  from  Indiana.  The  last  runs  through 
Oregon.  At  intervals  of  six  miles  east  and  west  of  the 
principal  meridians  were  established  other  meridians 
called  range  lines.  A  parallel  of  latitude  across  this 
country  was  then  chosen  as  a  base  Hne,  and  at  intervals 


7 

c 

6 

■p 

Co/red 

5 
ion 

S 

L 

ine 

4 

"5 

3 

c 

2 

IL 

1 

W. 

E. 

Ba 

se 

Li 

ne 

of  six  miles  north  and  south  of  the  base  line  other  lines 
were  established  called  tozvnsJiip  lines.  Thus  the  country 
was  divided  into  toivnships,  six  miles  square.  These  town- 
ships were  then  numbered  east  or  west  from  a  principal 
meridian,  and  north  or  south  from  the  base  line.  Since 
the  meridians  converge  as  we  go  north  (see  globe),  the 
townships  would  not  be  exactly  square,  but  would  become 
smaller  as  we  go  toward  the  pole.  To  correct  this,  certain 
parallels  north  and  south  of  the  base  line  were  chosen  as  cor- 
rection lines  from  which  the  survey  began  again,  as  from 
the  base  line.  Each  township  was  divided  into  sections  one 
mile  square,  which  therefore  contained  640  acres.  These 
sections  were  numbered  in  each  township  from  i  to  36. 
Each  section  is  divided  into  halves  and  quarters.  The  farm 
of  each  settler  may  be  located  exactly  by  means  of  this 
survey,  and  his  boundaries  are  recorded  in  the  offices  of  the 
government  so  that  there  can  be  no  possible  dispute  over 


RELATIONS    BETWEEN    PEOPLE    AND    LAND 


51 


them.  In  cities  the  land  is  further  subdivided  into  lots 
which  are  also  numbered  and  recorded.  Definiteness  and 
pennanence  are  thus  secured. 

A  great  deal  of  the  land  of  the  nation  remains  unsettled. 
This  is  called  public  land.  Some  of  it,  in  its  natural  con- 
dition, is  unfit  for  settlement  because  of  its  bar- 
ren or  swampy  character.  The  national  govern- 
ment is  reclaiming  much  of  the  arid  land  of  the  West  to 
man's  use.  In  1902  Congress  created  the  Reclamation 
Service.     It  has  constructed  reservoirs  and  a  net- work  of 


Public  Land 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

a 
8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

IS 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

40 
acres 

NEK 

NXi        NEM 

90  acres 

SEK 
NE'4 
W  acres 

100  acres 

I'X)  acres 
SE!-i 

III.  A  Township  Showing  Sections.  (36  square 
miles.)  Suppose  this  to  be  township  X  in  diagram  I. 
Then  the  section  named  a  is  section  8  of  township  3 
north  in  range  3  west. 


IV.   A  Section    (640  acres) 

Suppose  this  to  be  section  a  of 

diagram  III. 

Then  the   160  acres  in  the  lower 

right-hand   corner   is   the   southeast 

4   of  section  8  of  township  3  north  in 

range  3  west.     The  40  acres  marked 

NE  \  NW  \  is  the  northeast  \  of  the 

northwest  \  of  section  8  of  township  3 

north  in  range  3  west. 


canals  by  which  the  water  from  distant  streams  has  been 
conducted  through  the  arid  regions,  transforming  them  into 
productive  farm  lands,  which  have  been  thrown  open  to 
settlement.  By  191 3,  1,200,000  acres  had  been  reclaimed 
by  this  system  of  irrigation. 

Another  part  of  the  public  land  consists  of  the  national 
forests,  of  which  there  were  one  hundred  and  sixty-three 
in  191 3,  embracing  186,616,648  acres. 


52 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 


The  right  of  the  citizen  to  be  secure  in  his  property  is 
held  very  sacred  in  the  United  States;  but  when  the 
Government  interests  of  the  individual  conflict  with  those  of 
""rivatt  °^  ^^^  community,  the  former  have  to  yield.  The 
property  government  may  control  the  way  in  which  a 
citizen   uses   his   land.      It  may   say   to   him,    "  You   must 


Terrace  Irrigation,  California. 

keep  your  premises  clean,  so  as  not  to  endanger  the 
health  of  the  community  "  (chapter  IX).  Or,  "  Within 
certain  limits  you  shall  not  erect  wooden  buildings,  be- 
cause of  the  danger  to  the  community  from  fire"  (chap- 
ter X).  It  may  prohibit  some  kinds  of  business  in  certain 
parts  of  the  community  if  they  would  interfere  with  safety 
or  comfort,  as  in  the  case  of  saloons. 

If  the  interests  of  the  whole  community  demand  it,  the 


i  -i\  I   l;.>l()N     I)A\1    ciN    'IKI  I   KKK   Rl\-KK,    NEVADA. 

When  the  gates  in  the  clam  are  ?.lmt,  the  river  l)elo\v  the  ciain  becomes  dry,  and 
the  water  is  diverted  through  the  headgates  into  tlie  canal  in  the  foreground. 


TRrcKI'K    lKKli;\l'I()N    CWAI,    N'FAADA. 

The  canal  is  cement-lined  ami  iluring  the  irrigating  season  carries  the  entire  flow 
of  the  Truckee  River  thirty  miles  into  the  valley  of  the  Carson  River,  the  flow 
of  which  it  supplements,  and  is  then  led  l>y  ditches  over  the  land. 


RELATIONS  BETWEEN  PEOPLE  AND  LAND 


53 


government  may  even  take  away  the  land  of  a  citizen  and 
devote  it  to  public  uses.     This  is  called  the  rip-kt  ^^     .  ^ 

^  °  The  right 

of  eminent  do)}iain.     For  example,  if  the  national  of  eminent 
government  wishes  to  build  a  post  office,  it  may  '*°™^'° 
condemn  the  property  of  private  citizens,  and  remove  all 
buildings.     The    state    has   the   same    right    and   permits 


Furrow  irrigation,  Arizona. 

cities,  counties,  and  townships  to  exercise  it.  Thus,  if  the 
interests  of  the  community  call  for  a  new  street,  it  may  be 
constructed  through  the  property  of  individuals,  even  to 
the  extent  of  removing  buildings.  So,  also,  a  road  may 
be  built  through  a  man's  farm  by  the  county  government. 
The  state  also  grants  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  eminent 
domain  to  railroads,  because  of  the  important  public  serv- 
ice rendered  by  them.  In  exercising  the  right  of  emi- 
nent domain  a  very  important  condition  must  be  complied 
with  :  the  citizen  must  be  paid  a  Just  amou7it  for  Jiis  prof  erty. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides,  "  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  com- 


54  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

pensation "  (Amendment  V,  last  clause).  If  a  dispute 
arises  between  the  citizen  and  the  government  (or  the 
railroad)  over  the  price  of  the  land,  the  matter  may  be 
brought  before  a  court  for  settlement. 

Communities  may  grant  the  use  of  their  highways  to 
private  corporations  that  render  important  public  service, 
such  as  street  railways,  telephone  and  telegraph 
granting  of  Companies,  and  water  and  gas  companies.  The 
franchises  fight  to  use  public  land  in  this  way  is  called 
a  franchise.  In  return  for  the  privileges  of  a  franchise 
the  corporation  must  render  definite  services  to  the  com- 
munity, such  as  supplying  light  of  a  good  quality,  water 
that  is  pure,  street-car  service  that  can  be  depended  upon.. 
The  government  in  granting  the  franchise  is  acting  solely 
for  the  community,  and  should  look  carefully  after  the 
community's  welfare.  Unfortunately  the  officers  of  the 
government  do  not  always  do  their  duty  in  this  matter, 
and  franchises  are  granted  that  benefit  a  few  individuals 
without  securing  due  advantage  to  the  community-  (see 
chapter  XIII). 

It  was  said  in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  that 
our  rights  and  duties  as  citizens  are  determined  largely  by 
our  place  of  residence.  Citizens  of  the  United  States 
have  certain  political  rights,  such  as  voting  and  holding 
office,  and  certain  duties,  such  as  paying  taxes.  These 
Political  rights  may  be  enjoyed,  and  the  duties  performed, 
divisions  of  only  within  certain  districts  which  the  govern- 
the  an  ment  creates  for  this  purpose.     Were  it  not  for 

this  restriction,  unutterable  confusion  would  exist.  Thus, 
a  citizen  has  the  right  to  vote  within  the  state  where  he 
lives  but  not  in  any  other  state.  The  boundaries  of  the 
states  are  established  by  the  national  government  (except 
the  original  thirteen  states  of  the  Union,  whose  boundaries 


RELATIONS    BETWEEN    PEOPLE    AND    LAND  55 

were  fixed  before  the  national  government  was  organized) ; 
but  they  may  not  be  changed  afterward  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  state.  The  states  organize  themselves  into 
counties  and  townships.^  Villages  and  cities  are  granted 
definite  boundaries  by  the  state  government,  and  organ- 
ize themselves  into  wards  and  precincts.  There  are 
also  congressional,  judicial,  and  revenue  districts,  the 
boundaries  of  which  are  fixed  by  the  governments  of 
the  states  or  nation.  Residence  in  any  of  these  districts 
carries  with  it  duties  and  rights  that  the  citizen  does  not 
have  elsewhere. 

The  widely  varied  topics  of  this  chapter  illustrate  the 
numerous  ways  in  which  our  national,  state  and  local  gov- 
ernments serve  us  by  giving  permanence  and  definiteness 
to  our  relations  with  the  land  we  occupy,  and  by  securing 
to  the  community  and  to  the  citizen  the  largest  possible 
benefits  from  the  land. 

FOR    INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  were  the  original  boundaries  of  the  town  or  city  in  which 
you  live  ?  How  was  the  original  town  laid  out?  On  a  map  of  your  city 
mark  the  original  city  limits. 

2.  Whence  does  the  city  get  its  authority  to  add  to  its  territory  ? 

3.  Report  on  the  coming  of  the  first  important  factories  to  your  com- 
munity, and  show  how  they  gave  permanence  to  the  community. 

4.  Report  on  the  coming  of  the  first  railroad  to  your  community, 
and  its  effect  on  the  permanence  and  growth  of  the  community. 

5.  Are  there  any  business  associations  in  your  community  that  aid 
citizens  in  obtaining  homes  of  their  own,  such  as  Building  and  Loan 
Associations  ?     If  so,  report  how  they  operate. 

6.  Find  out  from  a  real  estate  agent,  or  in  some  other  way,  how  a 
piece  of  land  in  your  community  is  laid  off  into  lots. 

7.  Make  a  map  of  your  county,  showing  township^. 

'  In  the  West  i\\\s  poUHcal  townskip  usually  corresponds  with  the  township  sur- 
veyed by  tiie  national  government.    Sec  pages  49-50. 


56  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

8.  Find  out  in  what  range  your  township  is  with  reference  to  the 
nearest  principal  meridian.  Also,  what  is  the  number  of  your  township 
from  the  base  line?  (These  facts  may  be  learned  from  the  map  of  the 
United  States,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office,  and  mentioned 
below.) 

9.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  try  to  locate  the  lot  in  which  you  dwell  by 
lot  number,  section,  township,  etc.  (See  the  deed  giving  title  to  the 
property,  or  the  records  in  the  county  clerk's  office,  or  in  the  office  of 
the  city  engineer.) 

10.  Report  more  fully  upon  the  Homestead  Law.     (See  references.) 

11.  Do  you  know  any  instance  of  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  emi- 
nent domain  in  your  community  ?     Explain. 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  government  regulates 
the  use  of  the  land  you  live  on? 

13.  Make  a  list  of  the  lands  owned  by  government  in  your  com- 
munity, and  state  whether  they  belong  to  nation,  state,  or  local  com- 
munity. 

14.  Describe  the  ward  divisions  of  your  city.  How  were  they  laid 
out  ?     How  may  their  boundaries  be  changed  ? 

15.  Are  there  any  forest  or  park  reservations  in  your  state  ?  If  so, 
what  is  their  purpose  ?    Locate  them.    Do  they  belong  to  slate  or  nation  ? 

16.  Report  on  what  has  been  done  in  the  reclaiming  of  desert  lands 
in  the  West  or  in  your  state  by  irrigation.     (See  references.) 

17.  Has  any  land  been  given  to  your  state  by  the  national  govern- 
ment for  purposes  other  than  schools  ?     If  so,  what  ? 


REFERENCES 

A  map  of  the  United  States  published  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office, 
•which  can  be  secured  for  $  i  .00,  shows  the  government  survey  of  the 
Western  lands,  including  principal  meridians,  base  lines,  and  township 
and  range  lines.  It  also  shows  forest  and  Indian  reservations,  light- 
houses and  hfe-saving  stations,  and  other  matters  useful  in  the  study. 

County  and  city  maps  are  usually  available  at  the  city  and  county 
offices,  if  nowhere  else.     Such  majDs  should  be  in  each  civics  classroom. 

Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  Washington,  DC. 

"  Vacant  Public  Lands  in  the  United  States,"  Circular  No.  259, 
General  Land  Office,  Department  of  the  Interior,  1913. 

Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Reclamation  Service,  Department  of 
the  Interior,  191 2-1 3. 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1912-13. 


RELATIONS   BETWEEN   PEOPLE   AND   LAND  57 

"The  Nation's  Undeveloped  Resources/'  by  Franklin  K.  Lane, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  in  the  National  Geographic  Magazifie, 
February,  1914- 

The  "New  International  Encyclopedia"  and  the  "Encyclopedia 
Americana  "  are  excellent  for  looking  up  topics  of  national  importance, 
such  as  Irrigation,  Public  Lands,  Homestead  Act.  These  encyclopedias 
will  be  of  use  throughout  the  study. 

Hart's  "  Actual  Government  "  has  an  excellent  chapter  on  Land  and 
Landiiolding,  including  a  discussion  of  private,  corporate,  and  govern- 
ment landholding,  the  public  lands,  the  government  survey,  the  Home- 
stead Act.  This  book  is  most  valuable  as  a  book  for  the  teacher's  desk, 
and  will  be  found  to  cover  practically  every  topic,  local,  state,  or 
national,  referred  to  in  this  text-book. 

On  the  subject  of  irrigation  the  following  are  good : 

The  Pacific  Monthly,  September,  1906.  Contains  a  series  of  articles  explaining 
the  work  of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  in  the  various  irrigation  dis- 
tricts of  the  West. 

'  An  Object  Lesson  in  Irrigation,"  Review  of  Revieivs,  31 :  701  (1905). 
"  The  Winning  of  the  Desert,"  Outing,  45:  545  (1905). 
"The  Government  as  a  Homemaker,"  The  World  To-day,  10:  156  (1906), 
"  Reclamation,"  Outlook,  83:  933  (1906). 
'Uncle  Sam's  Romance  with  Science  and  the  Soil,"  Arena,  35:  36 

See  also  "  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature." 


CHAPTER   IX 

HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   AIDS   THE  CITIZEN   TO 
SATISFY   HIS   DESIRE   FOR   HEALTH 

Communities  have  developed  through  the  efforts  of  men 
to  satisfy  their  desires  (see  chapter  IV).  In  so  far  as  the 
community  provides  for  the  wants  of  its  citizens,  it  is  a 
good  community ;  if  it  fails  to  provide  for  any  of  them,  it 
is  an  imperfect  community,  and  the  lives  of  the  citizens 
will  be  incomplete.  The  desire  for  health  is  the  first  to  be 
provided  for. 

In  the  conditions  in  which  the  pioneer  family  lived,  life 
.and  health  were  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the  efforts 
The  pro-  and  the  arrangements  of  the  family  itself, 
tection  With  the  clearing  of   the  wilderness  and   the 

of  health  in  ° 

the  family  advance  of  civilization,  the  preservation  of  life 
and  health  has  become  much  less  simple  and  direct.  Not 
that  the  responsibility  of  the  family  has  decreased  in  any 
way :  it  has  rather  become  greater  ;  but  the  health  of  the 
individual  has  become  dependent  upon  so  many  things 
outside  of  the  family  that  the  latter  alone  .cannot  provide 
fully  for  it. 

With  the  growth  of  the  community,  while  the  dangers 
peculiar  to  the  wilderness  have  disappeared,  new  ones 
New  have  arisen  to  beset  the  life  and  health  of  the 

dangers         citizen.     Streams  that  were  originally  clear  and 

arise 

with  the        sparkling,  supplying  fish  for  food  and  water  to 

growth  of      drink,  when  passint^:  through  the  crowded  set- 
communi-  i  r>  <=> 

ties  tlements  of  men  become  impure  with  the  refuse 

of  factories  and  the  sewage  of  dwellings.     They  then  pour 

58 


1.    A   section  of  the  canal  cut  i 


2.   A  section  of  the  canal 


;..  ii.i    -i.n  earth. 


3.   The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 
Three  Views  ok  the  Ciiuaco  Drainac;e  Canal. 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH 


59 


forth  vile  odors  and  disease  germs.  The  drinking  water 
from  wells  and  streams  becomes  unsafe.  With  the  in- 
crease of  population  the  danger  of  epidemics  of  disease 
increases.  Impure  and  unwholesome  food  is  sold  in  the 
markets  and  over  the  counters  of  the  stores.  Wild  beasts 
and  savages  are  no  longer  to  be  feared  ;  but  unprotected 
railroad  crossings,  rapidly  running  trolley  cars  and  automo- 
biles, poorly  constructed  buildings  and  elevators,  burning 
buildings,  and  robbers  and  thugs,  constantly  threaten  the 
life  of  the  unwary.  In  the  crowded  cities  a  vigorous  out- 
door life  is  wanting.  Men,  women,  and  children  grow 
pale  and  sickly  because  of  indoor  occupations,  lack  of 
exercise,  and  the  breathing  of  air  vitiated  by  smoke  and 
foul  odors.  Whatever  disadvantages  the  country  child 
may  suffer  from  an  isolated  life,  his  chances  for  a  sound 
and  healthy  body,  a  most  priceless  possession,  are  generally 
greater  than  the  city  child's. 

As  the  community  grows  and  the  people  become  busy 
with  their  various  callings,  it  becomes  necessary  to  arrange 
for  systematic  protection,  and  to  center  the  re-  Government 
sponsibility  for  it  upon  some  designated  person  is  given 

ch3.r£[6  over 

or  group  of  persons.     With  the  organization  of  ^^e  health 
a  government,  it  is  given  supervision  over  the  arrange- 
health   arrangements.      In   the  community   de- 
scribed   in    the    first   chapter,    the   trustees   of    the   town 
were  assigned  the  duty  of  "  securing  the  general  health  of 
the  inhabitants,"  and  of  "  keeping  in  repair  the  drains  and 
sewers."     When  the  stream  which  ran  through  the  town 
became  clogged  with  sawdust  from  the  mill,  the  trustees 
appointed  a  committee  of  one  to  investigate.     He  reported 
and  pledged   himself,   "  should   mildness  and  good  nature 
fail,  to  lend  a  hand  in  applying  the  strong  arm  of  the  law." 
Again,  a    little   later,    information   was    received    of   the 


6o  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

approach  of  a  band  of  Swedish  immigrants  afflicted  with 
cholera.  Aid  was  sent  to  them,  but  they  were  warned 
not  to  enter  the  town,  and  an  appeal  was  pubhshed  in  the 
little  newspaper  urging  all  to  "  use  every  means  to  avert 
the  impending  danger.  Let  your  premises  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  purified.  Remove  everything  that  will  tend 
to  invite  disease."  A  board  of  JiealtJi  was  soon  created, 
and  a  commissioner  of  Jiealth  was  appointed  who  was  to 
have  gene-ral  supervision  over  the  sanitation  of  the  town 
and  report  to  the  board  for  action.  A  health  policejnan 
was  also  appointed.  He  inspected  drains,  sinks,  and 
cellars  in  private  houses,  and  fruits  and  meats  in  the  mar- 
kets. A  city  physician  was  appointed  to  care  for  the  sick 
among  the  poor,  and  was  paid  by  the  community  for  his 
services.  In  large  cities  the  officers  who  have  supervision 
of  the  health  arrangements  are  more  numerous  than  in 
the  smaller  communities,  and  their  duties  are  more  exten- 
sive. They  are  all  usually  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  health. 

With   the   growth    of  a   community   the    separate    and 
inadequate  drains  of    individual    householders  soon    give 
way  to  an  extensive  system  of  sewers  under- 
and  water      lying  all  the  streets,  connections  being  made  with 
supply  every  lot  and  house  in  the  city.    Here  the  natural 

slope  and  drainage  of  the  community  become  very  important, 
because  they  determine  the  ease  and  effectiveness  with  which 
the  sewage  can  be  carried  away.  Sometimes  it  is  drained 
into  a  stream  that  runs  through  or  near  the  city.  This  is  dan- 
gerous to  health  unless  the  stream  is  converted  into  a  closed 
sewer  oris  keptpurified  in  someway.  In  Chicago  the  sewage 
is  drained  into  the  Chicago  River,  and  thus,  until  recently,  was 
carried  into  Lake  Michigan,  whence  the  people  draw  their 
supply  of  drinking  water.     The  result  was  a  great  deal  of 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  6l 

sickness,  such  as  typhoid  fever.  The  river  also  was  a 
menace  to  health,  because  it  was  a  foul-smelling  and  disease- 
breeding  stream.  Chemists  were  employed  by  the  city  to 
examine  the  drinking  water  and  report  its  condition  in  the 
newspapers  each  day.  The  more  careful  families  boiled 
all  water  used  for  drinking.     But  in  spite  of  these    pre- 


FiLTER  Beds  of  the  Indianapolis  Water  Works. 

Water  from    White   River   is  brought  to  these  beds,  where  it  is  filtered  through 
layers  of  sand,  gravel,  and  perforated  tile.     See  next  illustration. 

cautions  thousands  of  people  were  made  sick,  and  many 
died  each  year  as  a  result  of  drinking  this  bad  water. 
This  situation  was  greatly  improved  by  the  construction  of 
a  drainage  canal  which  carries  the  water  of  the  Chicago 
River  into  the  Illinois  River,  and  thence  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, instead  of  allowing  it  to  flow  into  the  lake.  This 
effectually  disposes  of  the  sewage  of  the  city,  keeps  the 
river  flushed  and  pure,  and  prevents  the  lake  from  being 
contaminated. 

A  few  years  ago  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  appeared 
in   an    Eastern    city,   resulting   in  the    death  of   a  great 


62 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 


many  people  and  the  sickness  of  many  more.  A  careful 
inspection  disclosed  the  fact  that  there  had  been  a  case 
of  typhoid  fever  in  a  family  living  near  the  reservoir  from 
which  the  city  drew  its  water  supply,  and  that  this  family 
had  not  been  careful  in  the  disposal  of  its  sewage.  The 
ground  about  the  house  had  become  infected  with  the 
disease,  and  heavy  rains  had  carried  the  disease  germs  into 


Filter  Bed  of  the  Indianapolis  Water  Works. 

This  view  shows  the  bed  in  process  of  construction  :  at  the  bottom  a  layer  of  per- 
forated tile,  and  upon  this  a  layer  of  gravel  is  being  placed.  Upon  this  will  be 
a  layer  of  sand. 

the  reservoir.  This  case  illustrates  the  important-connection 
between  the  drainage,  the  water  supply,  and  the  health  of 
a  community.  It  illustrates  also  the  heavy  responsibility 
of  the  individual  citizen  and  family  for  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  community.  The  larger  the  community,  the  greater 
is  the  problem  of  preserving  health. 

The  most  important  precaution  against  disease  is  clean- 
liness.  This  is  a  matter  that  must  be  looked  after  principally 

in  the  home.     If  each  family  would  take  proper 
Cleanliness  .  i         i- 

precautions  to  secure  cleanhness  and  plenty  of 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  6^ 

fresh  air,  not  only  would  the  problem  of  disease  in  the 
community  be  largely  solved,  but  the  expense  of  govern- 
ment would  be  greatly  decreased.  /Because  of  the  failure 
of  the  family  and  of  the  individual  citizen  to  do  their  part, 
the  community,  through  its  government,  enacts  ordinances 
to  compel  people  to  keep  their  premises  clean  and  their 
drains  in  proper  condition. j  Ordinances  usually  exist  to 
prevent  the  filthy  and  dangerous  practice  of  spitting  in 
public  places.  This  practice  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
means  of  spreading  some  of  the  worst  diseases,  such  as 
tuberculosis  or  consumption,  and  the  ordinances  to  prevent 
it  are  among  the  most  important  enacted  by  our  city  govern- 
ments. Unfortunately  they  are  also  among  those  most 
seldom  enforced  and  most  often  violated.  Here  is  one  of 
the  cases  where  constant  and  concerted  action  on  the  part 
of  all  cleanly  and  well-informed  persons  is  necessary  to 
secure  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

Every  city   has  its   street-cleaning    department,   which 
does  not  always  do  its  work  as  well  as  it  should.     In  large 
cities  it  consists  of  an  army  of  men,  with  horses 
and  wagons  and  suitable  machinery  for  sweeping  cleaning 
and  cleansing  the  streets  and  alleys.    These  men  ^^  smoke 

,  ,  .   .  r  1  1  inspection 

are  under  the  supervision  of  a  board  or  a 
commissioner,  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  government 
(see  chapter  XXII).  There  are  also  smoke  inspectors, 
whose  work  is  important  in  keeping  the  atmosphere  pure. 
If  the  stoking  of  the  furnaces  in  factories  and  large  build- 
ings is  done  properly,  the  smoke  nuisance  can  be  greatly 
lessened.  There  are  smoke  consumers  which  aid  in  the 
consumption  of  the  smoke  that  is  otherwise  poured  out  of 
the  chimneys  over  the  community  ;  but  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  putting  them  in  prevents  many  men  from  doing 
so.     The  community  should  insist,  however,  that  the  smoke 


64  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

nuisance  be  removed  as  far  as  possible,  not  only  because  it 
is  detrimental  to  health,  but  also  because  it  mars  the  beauty 
of  the  city. 

Of  great  importance  in  large  cities  is  the  system  of  parks 
provided  for  the  recreation  of  the  people.     In  small  towns 
parks  are  not  of  such  great  importance  from  the 
play-  standpoint  of  health  ;  but  in  crowded  cities  every 

grounds  breathing  place,  where  fresh,  pure  air  and  grass 
and  trees  can  be  found  and  enjoyed  by  the  people,  is  of  un- 
told value.  One  of  the  best  of  the  charitable  works  in  large 
cities  is  that  by  which  thousands  of  poor  children  are  sent 
to  the  country  or  the  seashore,  or  to  "fresh-air  farms," 
during  the  summer  months.  This  is  doing  much  to  lessen 
the  death  rate  and  the  sickness  in  the  crowded  tenement  dis- 
tricts. In  the  rapid  growth  of  American  cities  not  enough 
care  has  been  taken  to  provide  for  parks.  Provision  should 
be  made  in  all  growing  cities  to  leave  spaces  that  may  be 
converted  into  beautiful  and  refreshing  parks  as  need  arises. 
In  some  cities  playgrounds  are  being  established  and  pro- 
vided with  tennis  courts,  ball  grounds,  and  gymnastic  appa- 
ratus. The  opening  of  school  yards  as  playgrounds  during 
vacation  periods  is  a  good  practice  that  is  growing. 

Cities  have  hospitals,  some  supported  by  private  organi- 
zations, such  as  churches,  and  some  supported  at  public 
'  Hospitals;  expense.  The  public  hospitals  are  under  the 
,  -quarantine  charge  of  physicians,  surgeons,  and  nurses  paid 
out  of  the  public  treasury.  Precautions  are  taken  against 
the  spread  of  contagious  diseases.  The  government  has 
the  right  to  declare  a  quarantine  against  a  home,  or  even 
against  a  whole  section  of  the  city ;  this  means  that,  in 
case  of  the  existence  of  a  contagious  disease,  the  occu- 
pants of  the  dwelling  or  of  the  section  of  the  city  may  be 
prevented    from  leaving    it,  and    others    prevented  from 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  65 

entering  it.  Physicians  are  required  by  law  to  report 
contagious  disease  to  the  health  officers,  who  placard  the 
house,  proclaiming  the  existence  of  the  disease.  Persons 
in  whose  homes  such  diseases  exist  may  be  prevented 
from  going  about  their  ordinary  business,  and  the  children 
from  going  to  school.  Physicians  sometimes  grow  care- 
less about  reporting  such  cases  of  sickness,  and  families, 
thinking  solely  of  their  own  convenience,  often  try  to  con- 
ceal the  presence  of  contagious  disease  in  their  homes. 
This  is  not  good  citizenship.  Such  families  endanger  the 
health  of  others.  Much  is  being  done  in  some  of  our 
cities  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  by  a  systematic 
medical  inspection  in  the  schools. 

Just  as  an  individual,  or  a  family,  is  dependent  for  health 
on  other  individuals  and  families  in  the  neighborhood, 
so  also  a  community  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  other 
communities  for  its  health.  This  is  especially  true  in 
these  days  when  the  means  of  communication  are  so  fully 
developed  and  when  traveling  is  so  common.  Contagious 
diseases  spread  rapidly  from  town  to  town,  and  not  infre- 
quently cover  large  districts  at  the  same  time.  When  an 
epidemic  of  smallpox  breaks  out  in  one  city,  it  is  Dependence 
likely  to  appear  in  other  cities,  and  even  in  the  of  one 
country  districts.  Any  ship  that  enters  our  har-  ^p^^"'^'  ^ 
bors  may  bring  with  it  diseases  from  the  slums  another  for 
of  Europe  or  of  Asia.  When  a  factory  pollutes 
the  stream  that  runs  by  it  with  refuse,  it  threatens  the 
health,  not  only  of  the  immediate  community  in  which  it 
is  situated,  but  also  of  other  communities  farther  down  the 
stream.  When  Chicago  turned  its  sewage  into  the  drain- 
age canal,  and  thence  into  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi 
rivers,  cities  and  towns  for  many  miles  along  these  streams 
became  very  much  alarmed,  and  St.  Louis,  which  derives 


66  THE    COMMUNITY    AND   THE    CITIZEN 

its  drinking  water  from  the  Mississippi,  brought  suit  in  the 
courts  against  Chicago.  Fortunately,  in  this  case,  it  was 
proved  that  the  water  becomes  freed  from  impurities,  by 
contact  with  the  air;  before  it  reaches  these  other  cities. 
Our  community  life  is  very  complicated,  and  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  foresee  how  the  actions  of  one  individual  or 
community  may  affect  the  lives  of  others. 

On  account  of  this  interdependence  in  matters  pertaining 

to  health,  it  is  not  safe  to  leave  their  regulation  wholly  to 

each   separate    community,   any  more    than    to 

Necessity 

for  state  leave  it  to  each  separate  family.  The  common 
supervision    interests  of  all  the  communities  within  a  given 

over  health  ,  i     i     i 

area  must  be  guarded  by  some  common  au- 
thority. Hence  the  state,  through  its  government,  makes 
provision  for  the  health  of  all  the  people  subject  to  its 
laws.  There  is  a  state  board  of  health  which  has  super- 
vision over  these  matters.  The  state  government  en- 
deavors to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  streams.  Laws  are 
enacted  to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods.  A  state 
government  may  declare  a  quarantine  against  neighbor- 
ing states  when  contagious  diseases  are  prevalent.  When 
yellow  fever  appears  in  New  Orleans,  the  surrounding 
states  often  refuse  to  allow  passengers  on  the  railways  to 
enter  from  Louisiana  except  after  the  most  rigid  medical 
inspection.  City,  county,  and  township  governments,  in 
their  regulation  of  matters  pertaining  to  health,  must  con- 
form to  the  broader  regulations  of  the  state. 

While  the  protection  of  the  health  of  citizens  is  left 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  state  and  local  gov- 
ernments, there  are  some  things  that  can  be  better  looked 
after  by  the  national  government,  because  they  are  of 
national  interest.  All  immigrants  from  foreign  countries 
are  required  to  undergo  a  medical  inspection  before  they 


THE    PROTECTION    OF    HEALTH  67 

are  allowed  to  land.     It  signs  ot  disease  are  found,  the 
passengers  of  the  ship  may  be  quarantined  until  the  danger* 
of  contagion  is  past.     Immigrants  who  are  in  ^j^^^^jj 
such  physical  condition  that  they  are  unable  to  national 
care  for  themselves,  and  woidd  therefore  be  a  doerfoTthe 
burden  on  the  community,  are  required  to  re-  health  of 
turn  to  the  country  from  which  they  came.     In 
a  recent  session  of  Congress  laws  were  passed  providing 
for  the  inspection  of  meats  put  up  in  the  packing  houses 
of  the  country,  and  to  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods 
with  injurious   materials.     Since  the   product  of  a  great 
packing   or   canning   establishment   is    sent  all  over  the 
country,  its  purity  is   a  matter  of  national  interest,  and 
therefore  is  a  proper  subject  for  regulation  by' the  national 
government. 

The  engineers  and  medical  staff  of  the  United  States 
army  have  done  much  in  recent  years  to  prevent  loss  of 
life  through  the  ravages  of  disease.  Not  only  have  they 
found  ways  to  prevent  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  and 
other  diseases  that  formerly  prevailed  in  military  camps 
and  destroyed  more  soldiers'  lives  than  were  lost  in  battle, 
but  they  have  even  caused  such  dread  diseases  as  smallpox 
and  yellow  fever  to  disappear  almost  completely  from  re- 
gions occupied  by  our  army,  as  in  Cuba,  Panama,  and  the 
Philippines.  This  has  been  done  in  part  by  better  sani- 
tary arrangements,  in  part  by  discovering  how  such  dis- 
eases were  carried,  as  by  mosquitoes  or  rats,  and  destroy- 
ing the  carriers,  in  part  by  medical  discoveries  that  prevent 
people  from  contracting  the  diseases.  This  service  of  our 
army  engineers  and  medical  men  has  been  of  untold  bene- 
fit to  the  entire  world. 

The  community  is  thus  doing  a  great  deal,  through  gov- 
ernment, to  preserve  the  life  and  health  of  its  citizens,  and 


68  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

it  owes  to  each  citizen  a  reasonable  assurance  that  protec- 
*tion  will  be  afforded.  On  the  other  hand,  each  citizen 
owes  something  to  the  community  in  this  matter.  As  we 
have  seen,  the  health  of  the  whole  community  depends 
.^.  _  largely  upon  the  cleanliness   and  watchfulness 

sibiiityof  of  cach  family.  The  responsibility  of  the  citi- 
e  citizen  ^^^  goes  much  further  than  this.  He  should 
do  what  he  can  to  secure  from  the  government  the  best 
possible  service  in  these  matters.  If  a  man  employs  a 
watchman  to  guard  his  premises  at  night,  and  the  watch- 
man fails  to  do  his  duty,  the  owner  will  certainly  call  him 
to  task,  and  will  take  every  precaution  against  a  repetition 
of  the  negligence.  The  people  have  a  right  to  demand 
that  their  government  watchmen  do  their  work  well,  and 
to  hold  them  accountable  for  every  failure.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  officials  charged  with  important  duties  of  govern- 
ment, even  in  such  matters  as  protecting  our  lives  and 
health,  often  become  negligent  and  careless.  They  can- 
not be  relieved  of  the  blame  for  this.  Yet  their  poor  serv- 
ice is  largely  the  fault  of  the  citizens  themselves,  who  do 
not  take  the  trouble  or  the  interest  to  inquire  how  their 
servants  are  doing  their  work,  or  to  call  them  to  account 
when  it  is  badly  done.  Each  citizen  must  constantly  keep 
his  eyes  open,  and  endeavor  to  maintain  a  lively  public 
sentiment  in  these  matters  by  constant  discussion.  He 
should  always  be  wilUng  to  call  attention  to  any  remissness 
in  the  enforcement  of  the  laws.  This  is  not  merely  a  duty 
to  others ;  his  own  welfare  depends  on  it. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

I .  When  your  commun  ty  was  first  founded,  were  the  geographical 
conditions  favorable  or  unfavoral^le  to  health?  As  the  community 
has  grown,  Have  these  geographical  conditions  become  more  or  less 
favorable?     Explain. 


THE    PROTECTION    OK    HEALTH  69 

2.  How  is  health  cared  for  in  the  average  farmer's  family?  In  a 
city  family? 

3.  If  there  are  any  records  available  from  which  to  gain  tlie  int'or- 
niation,  compare  the  means  of  protecting  health  in  the  early  days  of 
your  community  with  the  means  used  at  present. 

4.  If  you  live  in  a  rural  community,  what  is  done  by  the  county 
and  township  governments  for  the  protection  of  your  health? 

5.  If  there  is  a  board  of  health  in  your  city,  of  how  many  mem- 
bers does  it  consist?     How  is  it  chosen?     What  are  its  duties? 

6.  What  officers  are  employed  by  the  city  for  the  protection  of 
health?     Report  on  their  various  duties. 

7.  Report  on  the  street-cleaning  department  —  what  it  does,  what 
it  costs,  how  it  is  managed,  etc. 

8.  Report  on  the  sewage  system  of  your  community.  How  is  the 
sewage  disposed  of  ?     Cost  ?     Efficiency? 

9.  Report  on  the  methods  of  disposing  of  garbage  in  different  cities. 
What  methods  seem  to  be  best?     What  method  is  used  in  your  city? 

10.  Report  on  the  water  supply  for  drinking  purposes.  To  what 
extent  are  private  wells  used?  What  is  the  source  of  the  public 
water  supply?  Compare  the  purity  of  the  water  from  private  wells 
and  from  the  public  supply. 

11.  Do  you  know  of  any  epidemic  (such  as  typhoid  fever)  that  has 
appeared  in  your  community,  and  that  was  directly  traceable  to  impure 
drinking  water?     To  impure  milk? 

12.  Report  on  means  of  keeping  the  atmosphere  pure  in  your 
community. 

13.  What  means  are  emploved  in  your  community  to  secure  pure 
food? 

14.  Report  on  the  park  system  of  your  community.  How  is  it  man- 
aged?    Is  anything  being  done  to  establish  public  playgrounds? 

15.  Is  the  ventilation  of  your  school  building  good?  Can  you  do 
anything  yourself  to  improve  it? 

16.  Write  an  essay  on  the  subject, ''  The  Relation  of  Athletics  in  the 
School  to  the  Health  of  the  Community." 

17.  Is  there  any  kind  of  medical  inspection  in  your  school?  If  so, 
explain  its  working.  Find  out  if  there  are  any  well-established  cases 
where  epidemics  have  been  prevented  or  checked  by  school  medical 
inspection  in  your  community,  or  in  other  cities. 

18.  What  are  some  of  the  ordinances  in  your  community  for  the  pro- 
tection of  health?  Are  any  of  these  ordinances  commonly  violated? 
If  so.  why?  Can  you  do  anything  to  help  secure  the  enforcement  of 
such  ordinances? 


70  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

19.  Report  on  the  work  of  3^our  state  board  of  health.  (So  far  as 
possible  printed  reports  should  be  secured  directly  from  the  proper 
offices.) 

20.  What  other  state  health  officers  are  there?     What  is  their  work? 

21 .  Look  up  the  story  of  how  our  government  waged  war  on  disease 
in  Cuba.  What  have  been  the  results?  Why  should  our  national  gov- 
ernment interest  itself  in,  the  matter?  (The  same  may  be  done  with 
reference  to  the  Philippines  or  the  Panama  Canal  Zone.) 

22.  Look  up  the  story  of  the  most  recent  war  against  yellow  fever  in 
our  own  Southern  states.  Was  it  carried  on  by  the  local,  state,  or 
national  government?     Why? 

REFERENCES 

Allen,  William  H..  "Civics  and  Health."  Ginn  &  Company  (1909). 

Burks,  J.  D.  and  F.  W..  '•  Health  and  the  School,''  Appletons  (1913). 

The  last  mentioned  book  contains  a  bibliography  that  will  prove 
useful.  The  literature  on  pubhc  health  is  abundant.  Reference  should 
be  made  to  the  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  under  the  gen- 
eral headings  of  "  Health,"  ''  Sanitation,"  etc.,  or  under  sjDecial  headings 
such  as  •'  Street  cleaning,"  "  Food,"  etc. 

The  following  will  be  useful : 

Harper's  Moiithly,  April,  1912:  "The  New  Meaning  of  Public  Health,"  by 
Robert  Bruere. 

Tke  Outlook,  Dec.  7,  1912:  "The  Problem  of  National  Health,"  by  Earl  Mayo. 

Annals  American.  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  March,  1910 :  "  Pub- 
lic Recreation  Facilities."     March,  1911:  "The  Public  Health  Movement." 

National  Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1914:  "  Redeeming  the  Tropics,"  by 
W.  J.  Showalter. 


CHAPTER   X 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  PROTECT 
HIS   LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  danger  to  property,  and  often 
to  life,  is  fire.  The  loss  from  fire  in  the  United  States  every 
year  averages  about  .^  170,000,000.  Much  of  Danger 
this  might  be  avoided  if  each  citizen  were  more  from  fire  . 
careful  ;  but  fire  is  too  powerful  an  enemy  to  be  left  to  the 
individual  or  to  the  family  to  cope  with,  especially  in  cities. 
If  a  farmer's  house  or  barn  is  burned,  he  himself,  or  some 
member  of  his  family,  is  usually  to  blame  for  it,  and  he  must 
depend  on  his  own  efforts  to  prevent  the  loss.  In  the  city 
the  safety  of  a  citizen's  home  depends  largely  on  his  neigh- 
bors. Fire  is  an  enemy  that  endangers  the  whole  commu- 
rlity  ;  the  whole  community  must  unite  for  defense  against  it. 

In    Philadelphia,  in  Benjamin   Franklin's  time,    "each 
householder  kept  in  his  shop  or  his  pantry  a  bucket  and  four- 
teen-foot swab ;  while  the  city  provided  hooks,  ^.^^.j^ 
ladders,  and  three  rude  engines  of  English  make,   methods  of 
At  the  first  cry  of  fire  the  whole  town  was  in     ^^  ^  ^^'°^ 
excitement ;  the  laborer  quit  his  work,  the  apprentice  dropped 
his  tools,  buyers  and  sellers  swarmed  from  the  market,  and 
the  shopkeeper,  calling  his  wife  to  watch  his  goods,  seized 
his  bucket  and  hurried  away.     About  the  burning  building 
all  was  confusion  and  disorder.      No  man  was  in  authority. 
Each  man  did  as  he  pleased.    Some  fell  into  line  and  helped 
to  pass  the  full  buckets  from  the  pump  to  the  engine,  or  the 


72 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


empty  buckets  from  the  engine  to  the  pump;  some  caught 
up  the  hooks  and  pulled  down  blazing  boards  and  shingles  ; 
some  rushed  into  the  building  with  their  bags,  and  came 
out  laden  with  household  stuff."  Franklin,  who  was  always 
on  the  lookout  for  opportunities  to  improve  the  condition 
of  his  community,  thought  that  "  if  so  much  could  be  done 
in  a  way  so  bad,  a  hundredfold  more  could  be  done  if  a 
little  order  were  introduced."  He  aided  in  the  organization 
of  several  fire  companies  equipped  with  the  best  apparatus 
of  the  times  and  working  together  under  discipline,  which 
greatly  reduced  the  losses  from  fire  in  Philadelphia. 

At  one  time  the  fire  companies  of  cities  were  volunteer 
organizations,  whose  efficiency  was  kept  up  largely  through 
V  lun-  ^^^  spirit  of  rivalry.    Frequent  tournaments  were 

teer  fire  held  in  which  the  companies  of  the  community, 
companies  ^^  ^^  ^j^^  neighboring  towns,  contested  with  each 
other  in  running,  climbing  ladders,  and  other  feats.  Such 
organizations  may  still  be  found  in  small  communities. 

In  modern  cities  the  fire-fighting  arrangements  are  much 
more  complicated  and  effective.     Steam  fire  engines  and 

elaborate  apparatus  of  all  kinds  have  been  in- 
fighting vented.  Horses,  trained  until  they  show  almost 
arrange-        human  intelligence,  draw  the  engines  and  trucks 

to  the  fii'e  at  a  run.  A  system  of  electric  sig- 
nals is  in  operation  in  every  city,  so  that  a  fire  can  be 
announced  instantly  to  the  nearest  fire  station,  and  within 
a  minute  after  the  receipt  of  the  signal  the  horses  are  going 
down  the  street  at  a  gallop,  with  men  and  apparatus.  The 
firemen  are  organized  into  permanent  companies  with  per- 
fect discipline,  and  are  paid  by  the  community.  The 
whole  department  is  under  the  direction  of  a  chief,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  mayor  or  by  a  board.  The  New  York 
City  fire  department  is  the  largest  in  the  world  and  com- 


THE    PROTECTION    OF    PROPERTY  AND    LIFE         73 

prises  about  5000  firemen,  1300  horses,  200  fire  engines, 
more  than  100  hook  and  ladder  trucks,  and  several  fire 
boats  for  the  protection  of  property  along  the  water  front. 

An  important  part  of  the  means  of  protection  against 
fire  is  a  reliable  water  supply.  At  first  private  wells  and 
cisterns  supplied  water  for  fires  ;  then  public  The  water 
cisterns  were  built  at  convenient  points.  Now  supply 
every  large  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  some  unfailing 
source.  Cities  on  the  Great  Lakes,  like  Chicago,  draw  their 
water  from  them.  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  receive  theirs 
from  the  rivers  on  which  they  are  situated.  Inland  cities 
sometimes  get  their  water  from  deep  wells.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  provide  storage  reservoirs.  The  water  is 
forced  to  evury  part  of  the  city  through  pipes,  and  hydrants 
at  the  street  corners  or  other  convenient  points  serve  for 
the  attachment  of  hose.  Waterworks  are  sometimes  owned 
and  operated  by  cities  themselves,  but  usually  by  private 
Companies  which  receive  a  franchise  from  the  city. 

No  department  of  the  public  service  in  cities  is  better 
organized  or  more  efficient  than  the  fire  department.     It  has 
upon  it  a  great  responsibility,  and  the  community 
will  not  be  satisfied  with  anything  but  the  greatest  of  city  fire 
efficiency  possible.     The  service  requires  men  of  depart- 
intelligence,  sobriety,  courage,  and  endurance  ; 
men  who  are  willing  constantly  to  risk  their  lives  for  the 
good  of  all. 

It  has  been  said  that  seven  eighths  of  the  fires  that  occur 
are  the  result  of  a  lack  of  proper  precautions  in  building. 
That  this  is  true  is  due,  in  part,  to  a  lack  of  in-  ^^^^^  ^on- 
telligence  on  the  part  of  builders  ;  in  part  to  the  struction  of 
willingness  of  men  to  take  chances  for  the  sake  a"cause^of^^ 
of  cheapness.  In  either  case  the  person  re-  loss  from 
sponsible  for  poor  construction  of  buildings  is  a 


74 


THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 


menace  to  the  community.  A  builder  is  showing  good 
citizenship  when  he  does  his  job  well ;  poor  citizenship, 
when  he  does  it  badly  through  ignorance,  carelessness, 
or  avarice. 

Communities  try  to  protect  themselves  against  loss  of 
property  and  life  from  fire  by  means  of  laws  regulating  the 
Building  materials  used  in  construction,  the  height  of 
ordinances  buildings,  the  number  of  exits,  the  presence  of 
fire  escapes,  and  many  other  details.  Building  inspectors 
are  appointed.  An  unsafe  building  may  be  condemned 
and  its  use  forbidden  until  its  defects  are  remedied.  It 
would  seem  that  the  people  would  take  a  great  interest 
in  the  safe  construction  of  their  buildings,  and  that  the  laws 
protecting  them  would  be  rigidly  enforced  ;  but  such  is  not 
always  the  case.  For  a  long  time  no  accident  happens. 
The  people  become  careless,  and  the  laws  regulating  build- 
ing are  violated  constantly.  Of  333  tenement  houses 
which  were  being  built  in  New  York  at  one  time,  it  is  said 
that  only  15  conformed  to  the  law.  It  requires  some  great 
disaster  to  arouse  the  people  to  their  own  responsibility. 
Such  was  the  Iroquois  theatre  fire  in  Chicago,  in  1903,  in 
which  600  people  lost  their  lives. 

In  order  to  prevent  great  loss  to  individuals  from  fire, 

fire  insurance  companies  have  been  organized.     It  is  to  be 

noted,  however,  that   insurance   companies  do 

Fire 

insurance  not  actually  prevent  the  loss  of  property.  They 
companies  merely  distribute  that  loss  among  many  citizens. 
When  a  man  insures  his  property,  he  has  to  pay  the  com- 
pany z.  p7'emium  for  the  protection  afforded.  The  premi- 
ums of  thousands  of  persons  produce  a  large  sum  of 
money  out  of  which  the  occasional  losses  by  an  individual 
are  met.  Thousands  of  property  owners  in  all  parts  of 
the   land   are  thus   sharing   in  the  losses  of  individuals. 


THE   PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY  AND  LIFE         "5 

When  the  great  fire  occurred  in  San  Francisco,  following 
the  earthquake  in  1906,  the  loss  fell  very  heavily  on  the  in- 
surance companies.  In  order  to  meet  the  loss  many  com- 
panies raised  the  rates  of  insurance  all  over  the  country. 
Thus  people  everywhere  were  helping  to  bear  the  burden. 
Fire  insurance  companies  have  an  influence  in  keeping 
fire  departments  efficient,  for  they  raise  the  rates  of  in- 
surance when  they  think  that  fire  protection  is  not  so  good 
as  it  should  be.  The  people  who  have  to  pay  these  rates 
then  demand  better  equipment  and  better  organization  in 
their  fire  departments. 

Property  and  life  are  endangered  also  by  thieves  and 
other  enemies  of  good  order.  In  rough  communities  on 
the  frontier,  before  government  and  law  are  ^  ^j. 
well  established,  as  in  the  early  days  of  Califor-  from  law- 
nia,  the  honest  but  rough  citizens  sometimes  pro-  ^^^  ^^^ 
tect  themselves  by  voluntary  organizations,  frequently 
known  as  vigilance  committees.  They  seek  out  offenders 
and  punish  them  promptly,  too  often  without  giving  them 
a  fair  trial.  Similar  methods  are  sometimes  found  in  com- 
munities where  there  is  a  regular  government,  as  in  the  case 
of  "white-capping"  and  lynching  parties.  Such  methods 
are  full  of  evil.  They  are  usually  carried  out  under  cover 
of  darkness  and  in  secret,  thus  opening  a  way  for  rowdy- 
ism and  violence  under  a  pretense  of  administering  justice. 
A  crowd  of  men  gathered  together  hastily  in  a  spirit  of 
revenge  quickly  becomes  a  mob,'  and  is  likely  to  adminis- 
ter punishment  to  innocent  persons,  or  cruel  and  inhuman 
punishment  to  the  guilty. 

One  of  the  most  sacred  rights  of  Americans  is  the  right 
to  a  fair  trial,  before  a  jury  of  fellow-citizens,  even  though 
the  accused  is  known  to  be  guilty.  This  right  jj^^  ^jgi^^  ^Q 
is  guaranteed  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United   a  fair  trial 


y6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

States,  which  says  also  that  no  cruel  and  unusual  punish- 
ments shall  be  inflicted  (see  Amendments  VI  and  VIII). 
It  declares  also  that  no  person  shall  be  "  deprived  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  of  law " 
(Amendment  V).  Vigilance  committees  may  be  in  a 
measure  justified  in  communities  where  there  is  no  regu- 
larly organized  government  or  law ;  but  white-capping 
and  lynching  parties  in  communities  with  regularly  or- 
ganized governments  are  wholly  without  excuse.  Such 
parties  usurp  powers  granted  by  the  Constitution  to  the 
existing  government,  and  are  as  lawless  as  the  original 
offender.  They  tend  to  create  a  disregard  for  law  and 
order  and  disrespect  for  government. 

Our  local  governments  have  officers  to  protect  the  life 
and  property  of  citizens,  and  to  arrest  persons  who  inter- 
The  police  ^^'^^  ^^^^  ^^^  rights  of  Others.  In  townships 
there  are  constables;  in  counties,  sheriffs  and 
their  deputies ;  in  cities,  the  police  department.  The 
police  department  requires  a  high  degree  of  organization 
because  of  the  complex  conditions  of  city  life.  Before  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  the  police  of  our  cities  were  as 
poorly  organized  as  the  fire  departments  of  FrankHn's 
time.  In  New  York,  although  the  population  numbered 
more  than  300,000,  the  policing  of  the  city  at  night  was 
performed  by  a  body  of  citizens  who  pursued  other  occu- 
pations during  the  day.  In  the  city  of  greater  New  York 
the  police  force  consists  now  of  more  than  10,000  men,  as 
many  as  constituted  the  American  army  at  its  best  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  It  is  organized  very  much  like 
an  army,  under  a  chief  of  police  and  many  subordinate 
officers. 

The  police  of  a  city  patrol  its  streets  at  all  times  of  the 
day  and  night  to  protect  property  and  life  against  vio- 


THE  PROTECTION  OF  PROPERTY  AND  LIFE 


77 


lence.  They  keep  order  in  crowds  ;  they  guard  Duties  of 
dangerous  street  crossings,  assisting  people  the  police 
across  and  regulating  the  mov'ements  of  vehicles ;  they 
assist  the  health  department  in  enforcing  its  regulations  ; 
they  render  aid  at  fires  in  keeping  the  crowds  back  for 
their  own  safety,  and  to  prevent  interference  with  the  work 
of  the  firemen ;  they  restore  lost  children  to  their  homes. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  fire  department,  the  duties  of  the 
police  require  strength,  courage,  and  intelligence.  It  is  a 
misfortune,  however,  that  the  police  departments  of  our 
cities  are  not  always  as  eflficient  as  the  fire  departments 
(see  pages  235-6).  The  police  department  of  the  city  often 
works  together  with  the  sheriff  of  the  county  and  his  dep- 
uties, and  in  times  of  great  danger  private  citizens  may 
be  sworn  into  service  to  aid  the  police.  At  all  times  the 
police  may  call  on  private  citizens  for  aid  if  necessary. 
Offenders  against  the  persons  or  property  of  citizens  are 
brought  for  trial  before  the  police  (or  magistrates')  courts 
of  cities  ;  or,  for  more  serious  offenses,  before  the  higher 
courts  of  the  state  (see  chapter  XXIII). 
'  Another  important  arrangement  for  the  safety  of  prop- 
erty and  life  is  a  system  of  street  lighting.  In  ancient 
cities,  as  in  Rome,  the  streets  were  narrow  and  street 
crooked,  and  at  night  were  totally  dark,  except  ^'g^tmg 
as  citizens  lighted  their  way  with  torches.  Philadelphia  had 
no  regular  system  of  street  lamps  until  it  was  established 
by  Franklin.  Modern  American  cities  as  a  rule  have 
broad,  straight,  paved  streets,  illuminated  at  night  by  oil, 
gas,  or  electric  lights.  The  street-lighting  plant  is  some- 
times owned  by  the  city  and  managed  by  the  government ; 
but  it  is  usually  in  the  hands  of  private  companies  paid 
by  the  city  for  their  services. 

Communities  often  regulate  certain  kinds  of  business  for 


78  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

the  sake  of  safety.  The  manufacture  of  explosives  is 
R  1  ti  n  dangerous  to  Hfe  and  property,  and  is  therefore 
of  business  usually  Carried  on  under  restrictions  as  to  the 
for  safety  location  of  the  factory.  The  liquor  traffic  is  often 
restricted  to  certain  localities,  and  is  checked  by  the  im- 
position of  license  fees.  In  some  communities  it  is  pro- 
hibited altogether.  A  large  part  of  the  policing  of  a  city 
is  made  necessary  by  the  disorders  growing  out  of  the 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  Pawn  shops  are  subject  to 
regulation  by  government  to  prevent  them  from  receiv- 
ing and  disposing  of  stolen  goods. 

In  a  large  community  each  man's  life  and  safety  de- 
pend, to  a  great  extent,  on  the  carefulness  of  others. 
Prevention  The  thousands  of  people  who  travel  on  the  cars 
of  accidents  each  day  are  at  the  mercy  of  those  who  run  the 
train  —  the  engineer,  the  conductor,  the  switchman,  the 
train  dispatcher.  Gross  carelessness  on  the  part  of  such 
responsible  persons  may  be  considered  a  criminal  offense, 
and  may  be  punished  by  the  proper  authorities  ;  but  it  is 
better  to  prevent  accidents  than  to  punish  the  responsible 
person  after  the  accident  occurs.  Therefore  the  work  of 
such  persons  is  usually  regulated  by  law,  and  arrange- 
ments are  made  to  prevent  accident.  Railroads  may  be 
compelled  to  station  watchmen  at  dangerous  crossings,  to 
provide  gates  that  are  closed  at  the  approach  of  a  train,  or 
to  run  their  tracks  across  streets  on  elevated  roadways  or 
underneath  the  street.  The  rate  of  speed  at  which  a 
train,  or  electric  car,  or  automobile  may  run  is  established 
by  law,  and  violations  of  the  law  are  punishable  by  fine. 
The  government  also  appoints  building  inspectors  and 
boiler  inspectors.  These  are  only  examples  of  many  pre- 
cautions taken  to  prevent  accident  to  life  and  property. 

Here  again  we  have  to  notice  the  constant  violation  and 


THE    PROTECTION    OF   PROPERTY   AND    LIFE        79 

lax  enforcement  of  the  law.     Trains  rush  through  cities  and 
across  streets  at  unlawful  speed.    Street  cars  and   Lai 
automobiles  do  the  same.     Railroads  often  resist  enforcement 

of  laws  to 

as  long  as  they  can  attempts  to  compel  them  prevent 
to  elevate  their  tracks,  or  to  provide  safety  accident 
gates.  Elevators  are  run  by  incompetent  persons  and 
without  inspection  of  the  machinery.  Inspectors  do  their 
work  in  a  careless  manner.  Theatres  are  built  without 
due  regard  to  the  number  and  position  of  exits.  The 
individual  who  disregards  the  regulations  imposed  by  the 
community,  even  in  such  slight  matters  as  the  speed  of  his 
bicycle,  or  the  lighting  of  its  lamp  on  a  dark  night,  is  help- 
ing to  make  his  community  an  unsafe  and  unpleasant 
place  in  which  to  live. 

In   191 2,  78,700  persons  lost  their  lives  by  accident  in 
the   United  States.     A  much  larger  number  were   more 
or  less  seriously  injured.     For  example,  while  ^ 
there  were  41  persons  killed  in  Fourth  of  July  for  accident 
accidents,   there   were   947  who  were    injured.   P'"^^^°^°° 
Because  of  the  movement  for  a  more  intelligent  celebra- 
tion of  Independence  Day,  the  total  number  of  such  acci- 
dents decreased   from   5623  in   1908  to  988  in   191 2.     A 
very  large  number  of  injuries,  many  of  them   fatal,  are 
received  by  persons  in  their  regular  occupations.     These 
are  known  as  industrial  accidents.     In  the  year  191 1,  for 
example,  there  were  2719  men  killed  and  31,334  injured 
in  the  coal  mines  of  the  United  States. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  has  been  active  in 
its  efforts  to  increase  the  safety  of  mining  operations,  by 
investigating  the  causes  of  mine  accidents  and  urging 
measures  to  prevent  them.  There  is  now  a  pretty  general 
movement  for  the  prevention  of  industrial  accidents.  In 
the  American  Museum  of  Safety  in  New  York  City  there 


8o  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

may  be  seen  all  kinds  of  devices  for  the  protection  of 
those  who  work  with  machinery  or  in  dangerous  places. 
Railroads  and  industrial  organizations  are  adopting 
"  Safety  First  "  as  their  watchword.  In  order  to  compel 
employers  to  take  every  possible  precaution  for  the  safety 
of  their  employees,  laws  have  been  passed,  known  as 
"  employers'  liability  laws,"  which  hold  the  employer  re- 
sponsible for  accidents  occurring  to  workmen  in  their  em- 
ploy. Many  industrial  accidents,  however,  are  due  wholly 
or  in  part  to  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  workmen 
themselves.  Both  employers  and  employees  have  a  moral, 
if  not  a  legal,  responsibility  for  the  safety  of  themselves 
and  others. 

Although  the  protection  of  property  and  life  is  largely 
in  the  hands  of  the  local  communities,  most  of  the  laws 
that  local  ofificers  are  called  .on  to  enforce  are  made  by  the 
state  government,  and  apply  alike  to  all  the  communities 
of  the  state. 

The  state  militia  corresponds,  in  a  measure,  to  the  police 
of  cities.  It  consists  of  all  able-bodied  male  citizens  of 
The  state  the  states  and  territories  and  of  the  District  of 
militia  Columbia,  and  of  all  able-bodied  males  of  for- 

eign birth  who  have  declared  their  intention  to  become 
citizens,  who  are  between  eighteen  and  forty-five  years  of 
age.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts :  the  organized  militia, 
known  as  the  National  Guard  of  the  several  states,  terri- 
tories, or  the  District  of  Columbia ;  and  the  reserve  militia, 
including  all  the  remainder  of  those  eligible  to  serve.  In 
case  of  riot  or  disorder  or  calamity  which  the  local  authority 
cannot  handle,  the  governor  of  the  state  may  send  the 
National  Guard  to  aid  in  restoring  order,  as  in  the  case  of 
recent  labor  troubles  in  the  Colorado  coal  mines  (see  page 
82),  or  during  the  floods  in  Ohio  in  191 3. 


THE   PROTECTION   OF   PROPERTY   AND   LIFE        8 1 

The  militia  may  be  called  out  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States  to  suppress  insurrection  or  to  repel  invasion. 
It  then  becomes  a  part  of  the  volunteer  forces  of  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  is  subject  to  the  same  regulations  as 
the  regular  army,  and  may  be  used  either  within  or  with- 
out the  territory  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  Revolution  and  in  the  War  of  1812  the  militia 
caused  much  trouble  because  of  the  jealousies  of  the  sev- 
eral states.  Governors  sometimes  refused  to  allow  their 
militia  to  go  outside  of  their  states.  Then,  too,  as  in  more 
recent  wars,  the  militia  has  sometimes  been  poorly  officered, 
poorly  drilled,  and  impatient  of  discipline.  Laws  have 
been  passed  by  Congress  to  remedy  these  defects,  the  most 
recent  being  that  of  1914,  which  gives  the  President  au- 
thority to  appoint  the  officers  of  the  militia  in  time  of  war. 

For  the  defense  of  our  national  possessions  and  of  the 
liberty  of  our  citizens  against  enemies  from  without,  we 
maintain  an  army  and  a  navy.  Our  army  is  National 
very  small  as  compared  with  the  armies  of  other  defense 
nations.  Our  geographical  position,  separated  as  we  are 
from  other  great  powers,  has  made  a  large  standing  army 
unnecessary.  The  belief  of  the  founders  of  our  nation  was 
that  a  large  standing  army  was  dangerous  to  the  liberties 
of  the  people  and  a  burden  of  expense.  Our  policy  there- 
fore has  always  been  in  favor  of  as  small  an  army  as  is 
consistent  with  our  national  safety.  In  time  of  war  our 
dependence  has  been  chiefly  on  the  militia  or  army  of  citi- 
zens enlisted  for  the  occasion.  At  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War  an  army  of  more  than  2,000,000  men  was  raised  by 
enlistment  in  the  North,  and  one  of  1,000,000  men  in  the 
South.  At  the  present  time  it  would  be  possible  to  raise  a 
vastly  greater  army  than  this,  although  our  standing  army 
of  regular  soldiers  numbers  less  than  100,000  men. 


82 


THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THK    CITIZEN 


The  army 


The  army  not  only  defends  our  territory  aL;ainst  invasion, 
but  it  may  also  be  sent  to  any  part  of  the  world  to  protect 
the  rights  of  American  citizens.  It  may  be 
called  on  to  quell  local  disturbances  when  the 
state  authorities  are  unable  to  do  so.  In  the  recent  Colo- 
rado mine  troubles  referred  to  above  (page  80)  the  state 
and  local  authorities  failed  to  maintain  order.     The  dis- 


H^ 

^ 

' ,  '^»Jta#'«<Hin^  W-^m^ 

'  ■■■■*■  '^teJ^"'  »  *9lB 

■     '^'"■■■"^ 

1  ; 

\          '^'^^^      -■      \ 

'  mi^tmM 

Lawrenckburo,  Ini).,  during  the  Flood  of  ihe  Ohio  Ri\er  in  li 


turoance  assumed  national  importance.  Therefore  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  who  is  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  sent  national  troops  to  take  charge  of  the  situ- 
ation. At  the  time  of  the  earthquake  and  fire  in  San 
Francisco  national  troops  from  the  fort  near  by  were 
rushed  into  the  city  to  help  in  maintaining  order  and  in 
protecting  property  and  life.  They,  of  course,  cooperated 
with  the  state  militia  and  the  city  police.  The  national 
troops  are  usually  more  effective  in  restoring  order  than 
either  the  militia  or  the  police. 


THE    PROTECTION    OF    PROPERTY    AND    LIFE 


83 


The  navy  is  another  means  of  national  protection.  It 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  American  government  to  limit 
our  navy  to  the   smallest   size  consistent   with 

■'  The  navy 

national  safety,  as  in  the  case  of  the  army.     Hut 
because  of  our  rapidly  growing  commerce  and  the  increas- 
ing interests  of  American  citizens  in  foreign  lands,  together 
with  the  acquisition  of  territory  across  the  seas,  a  strong 


BUILDINC   THE    LEVKE   AT   LAWRENCEBURG,  IND.,  FOR   THK  PROIECTION  OF 

THE  City  against  Floods. 


navy  has  become  more  essential  than  a  large  army.  At 
the  present  time  our  navy  compares  favorably  in  strength 
with  the  navies  of  other  large  nations. 

Many  people  believe  that  our  navy  should  be  greatly 
strengthened  year  by  year.  Others  believe  that  such  war- 
like preparations  should  be  checi<ed.  Both  The  peace 
parties  are  desirous  of  peace  with  all  the  world  ;  movement 
but  one  party  believes  that  the  surest  way  to  maintain 
peace  is  to  be  thoroughly  preparel  f^^r  war,  while  the 
other  party  would  impress  the  world  with  our  peaceful 
intentions  by  ceasing  to  prepare  for  war.     The  cost  of  the 


84 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


navy  is  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate  with  the  increasing  size 
of  battleships  and  armaments.  Proposals  have  recently 
been  made  to  seek  an  agreement  among  the  nations  to 
stop  naval  construction  for  a  time.  No  one  nation  feels 
that  it  can  stop  building  as  long  as  the  others  continue  to 
do  so.     It  is  believed  by  the  friends  of  this  plan  that  it 


An  Ohio  River  Flood  seen  from  the  Top  of  the  Levee  at 

Lawrenceburg,  Ind. 

The  city  is  now  entirely  protected  by  the  great  embankment. 

Notice  the  raihoad  tracks  on  the  levee  for  safety. 

would  be  a  step  in  the  direction  of  universal  peace,  besides 
relieving  the  nations  of  a  vast  burden  of  expense. 

The  national  government  has  done  a  great  deal  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property  by  removing  obstructions 
Life-saving  to  navigation  along  the  coast,  by  improving 
on  th6  coast  harbors,  as  at  New  York  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River,  by  erecting  lighthouses  and 
establishing    life-saving    stations.     Every    year    the    life- 


THE    PROTECTION    OF    PROPERTY    AND    LIFE        85 

savers  perform  deeds  of  heroism  by  which  scores  of  lives 
and  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  property  are  saved. 
The  national  government  has  constructed  levees  along 
some  of  our  rivers,  as  on  the  lower  courses  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, for  the  protection  of  the  land  against  floods. 

We  may  learn  from  this  chapter  that  the  protection  of 
our  lives  and  property  is  placed  almost  wholly  in  the 
hands  of  the  local  governments ;  that  the  state  govern- 
ment acts  only  when  the  welfare  of  the  Protection 
whole  state  demands  it,  or  when  the  difficulties  the  hands  of 
to  be  met  are  beyond  the  powers  of  the  local  local  and 

...  ,      ,  ,  .         ,  state  gov- 

authorities;  and  that  the   national  government  ermnents 
acts  for  the  nation  at  large,  and   interferes  in  local  pro- 
tection only  when  the  interests  of  the  whole  nation  are  at 
stake,  or  when  the  local  and  state  authorities  prove  them- 
selves  incapable  of  handling  the  situation. 


FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  were  the  means  of  fighting  fires  in  your  community  in  the 
early  days?  How  did  the  methods  compare  with  those  of  Franklin's 
time? 

2.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  fire  department  in  vour  city. 
How  is  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  among  the  firemen  secured? 

3.  Report  on  the  waterworks  system  of  your  city.  Is  it  efficient? 
If  not,  why? 

4.  Try  to  find  out  the  chief  causes  of  the  fires  in  your  community 
in  the  last  year.     What  may  you  do  to  prevent  them? 

5.  From  the  city  ordinances  find  some  of  the  regulations  regarding 
the  construction  of  buildings. 

6.  Is  there  building  inspection  in  your  community?  Is  violation 
of  building  ordinances  common  ? 

7.  Report  on  the  duties  of  the  constable.     Of  the  sheriff. 

8.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  police  department.  What 
qualifications  must  a  man  have  to  receive  appointment  as  a  policeman 
in  your  community? 

9.  Look  up  the  services  of  Benjamin  Franklin    in   Philadelphia  in 


86  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 

improving  the  fire  department,  the   night  watch,  and  the  lighting  of 
the  streets  (see  FrankHn"s  Autobiography). 

lo.  What  is  the  method  of  street  lighting  hi  youi'  ccrr'ni unity?  Is  it 
done  by  the  community  itself,  or  by  a  private  company?  Is  it  as  well 
done  as  it  should  be? 

/  II.    What  kinds  of  business  in  your  community  are  regulated  for  the 
protection  of  life  and  property? 

^12.    What  other  ways  can  you  find  in  which  property  is  protected 
besides  those  mentioned  in  this  chapter? 

13.  Investigate  the  subject  of  the  violation  of  speed  regulations,  and 
other  regulations  to  secure  safety  on  the  streets  of  your  city. 

14.  Have  you  an  organization  of  militia  in  your  community?  Find 
out  what  you  can  about  its  organization.  Try  to  find  out  something 
about  the  following  points:  a.  What  is  the  numerical  strength  of  the 
militia  in  your  state?  i>.  How  are  its  officers  chosen?  c.  What  in- 
stances do  you  know  of  your  state  militia  being  called  out  to  suppress 
disorder? 

15.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organization  of  the  United 
States  army  ;  of  the  United  States  navy. 

16.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  work  of  the  life-saving  service 
of  the  United  States. 

17.  Report  on  instances  of  the  use  of  the  army  in  time  of  calamity 
other  than  war. 

18.  Report  on  the  cost  of  a  modern  battleship,  and  of  the  American 
navy  for  one  year. 

19.  Report  on  devices  for  the  prevention  of  industrial  accidents. 

20.  Discuss  methods  by  which  you  may  reduce  the  danger  of 
accidents  in  your  daily  life. 

REFERENCES 

For  Information  regarding  the  organization  of  branches  of  local  gov 
ernment,  such  as  the  fire  and  police  departments,  the  city  charter  and 
city  ordinances  may  be  consulted  In  many  cases  there  may  be  printed 
reports  of  the  departments  in  question.  It  will  often  be  impracticable 
to  expect  the  whole  class  to  gather  full  information  on  such  matters; 
but  one  or  two  pupils  may  make  special  reports. 

Benjamin  P'ranklin's  Autobiography. 

Riis,  Jacob,  "  Heroes  Who  Fight  Fires,"  in  Century  Magazine,  33:483. 
Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapter  XXXIII. 

Hart,  A.  B.,  "  Actual  Government,"  pp.  462-477,  for  the  organization  of  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  the  militia;  pp.  573-582  (fire  protection,  police,  etc.). 


THE    PROTECTION    OK    I'KOl'ER  I  V    AND    LIFE        8/ 

Kairlie,  |.  A.,"  Municipal  Adniinisiiiitiun,"  cliaptcr  VIII,  "  I'ublic  Healtli  and 
Safety." 

Wilcox,  U.  v.,  "  The  American  City,"  chapter  VI,  "  Municipal  Insurance." 

"  Chief  Causes  of  Fires,"  in  TAe  American  City,  July,  1914,  p.  41. 

Conkling.  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  chapters  V,  VI. 

.•\dams,  W.  H.  S.,  "  The  Story  of  our  Lighthouses  and  Light  Ships." 

"  Heroes  of  Peace,"  Century  Magazine,  55  ;  925 ;  58  :  210. 

"Organization  and  Methods  of  the  Life-Saving  Service";  a  pamphlet  that  may 
be  obtamed  trom  the  Superintendent  of  the  Life-Saving  Service,  Washington,  U.C. 

Report  of  the  United  States  Life-Saving  Service,  1913,  Treasury  Department, 
Washington,  U.C. 

The  location  of  lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations  may  be  seen  on  the  Land 
Office  Map  of  the  United  States  already  leferred  to. 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  1913,  Washington. 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  .Vavy,  1913,  W^ashington. 

"  The  Doom  of  War,"  by  Arthur  Deerin  Call.  Published  by  the  American 
Peace  Society,  1914.     Pp.  3-5  give  striking  figures  relative  to  the  cost  of  the  navy. 

On  the  Peace  Movement  see  the  publications  of  the  American  Peace  Society, 
Colorado  Building,  Washington,  D.C. 

Publications  of  the  American  Museum  of  Safety,  New  York  City. 

Publications  of  the  National  Council  for  Industrial  Safety,  Chicago. 


LUIHTHOUSE  ON   THE   SlIORK  OF   LaKT    \TiriII';.\M. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE 
CITIZEN  IN  BUSINESS  LIFE 

A  LARGE  part  of  the  activity  of  the  people  of  every  com- 
munity is  due  to  their  desire  for  wealth,  and  constitutes  the 
Thebusi-  busincss  Hfe  of  the  community.  It  is  well  to 
nessiife  remember  that,  when  we  speak  of  wealth  in 
community  this  connection,  we-  do  not  necessarily  mean 
great  riches,  but  all  material  goods,  however  much  or 
little,  for  which  men  are  willing  to  work.  In  many 
people  the  desire  for  wealth  is  very  strong,  and  some- 
times becomes  a  passion  that  smothers  the  <other  de- 
sires of  Hfe;  then  it  tends  to  make  men  narrow  and  selfish, 
and  tc  interfere  with  their  greatest  usefulness  in  the  com- 
munity. Wealth  is  worth  having  only  when  it  contributes 
to  the  health,  the  knowledge,  the  beautiful  surroundings 
—  in  a  word,  to  the  complete  life  of  those  who  possess  it. 
But  whether  the  purpose  be  to  attain  completeness  of  life, 
or  merely  to  satisfy  greed,  or  perhaps  to  enjoy  the  excite- 
ment of  the  game  of  business,  the  business  hfe  of  a  com- 
munity always  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  attention  of  the 
people. 

The  dependence  of  each  citizen  on  the  community  is 
nowhere  seen  more  clearly  than  in  his  business  life ;  no- 
where is  his  responsibiUty  to  the  community  greater;  no- 
where is  there  greater  opportunity  for  good  citizenship. 

How  dependent  the  individual  is  on  the  community  for 

88 


THE   BUSINESS   LIFE   OF   THE  COMMUNITY         89 

success  in  satisfying  his  desire  for  wealth  might  be  shown 
in  many  ways,  but  we  shall  take  only  one  or  jhe  pioneer 
two  illustrations.  The  pioneer  family  was  al-  ^^^^^^"^^ 
most  wholly  dependent  on  its  own  efforts  for  largely  on 
the  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  consequently  "^^^ 
this  wealth  was  very  limited  in  quantity  and  quality. 
The  articles  of  home  manufacture  were  usually  few 
and  rough.  There  were  few  materials  to  select  from, 
and  the  many  things  to  be  done  left  little  time  for  doing 
any  one  thing  except  in  the  simplest  way  possible.  All 
the  members  of  the  family  contributed  to  the  common  re- 
sult, and  they  divided  the  work  so  that  each  had  his 
special  tasks  and  became  more  skillful  than  the  others  in 
their  performance.  All  worked  together  for  the  common 
good,  and  each  received  a  share  of  the  results  of  the  labor 
of  all. 

As  this  small  community  consisting  of  one  family  was 
increased  by  other  families,  a  better  opportunity  was  given 
for  a  division  of  labor.  One  member  of  the  There- 
original  family,  who  had  formerly  made  the  division  of 
shoes  for  his  family  only,  on  account  of  his  skill  labor 
at  that  work  and  because  of  the  demands  of  the  addi- 
tional families,  was  now  enabled  to  devote  his  entire 
time  to  shoe  making.  Members  of  these  new  families  were 
skillful  in  other  crafts,  one  a  baker,  another  a  weaver, 
another  a  miller,  and  another  a  blacksmith.  The  needs 
of  the  community  for  bread,  clothing,  flour,  and  tools  were 
now  sufficient  to  enable  the  baker,  the  weaver,  the  miller, 
and  the  blacksmith  to  devote  their  entire  time  to  their 
trades,  thus  both  increasing  the  amount  and  improving  the 
quality  of  their  products.  One  after  another  the  duties 
of  the  farmer  were  lessened  until  finally  it  became  his 
special  business  to  provide  farm  products  for  the  whole 


90 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


community  in  return  for  the  things  that  the  others  did  for 
him. 

With  the  introduction  of  machinery  and  the  building 
of  factories  where  hundreds  of  men  are  employed,  the 
Effect  of  division  of  tasks  has  become  more  complete, 
modern  ^nd  each  worker  rarely  produces  more  than  one 
organiza-  thing.  In  well-organized  factories,  each  work- 
^°^  man  devotes  his  entire  time  to  producing  one 

small  part  of  each  article.  In  a  factory  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  milling  machinery,  for  example,  one  set  of  work- 
men does  nothing  but  chip  the  surface  of  millstones  with 
hammers  to  make  them  rough.  They  apparently  con- 
tribute very  little  to  the  general  welfare ;  but  the  com- 
munity provides  them  with  a  living  in  order  that  they 
may  do  this  one  thing,  and  do  it  well.  We  say  that  they 
receive  so  much  a  day  for  their  work.  In  reality  they 
are  being  supplied  with  bread  and  meat,  clothing  and 
shelter,  furniture  and  tools,  medicines  and  doctors'  serv- 
ices, education  for  their  children,  religious  teaching  on 
Sundays,  entertainment  at  the  theaters,  and  scores  of 
other  things,  in  exchange  for  their  monotonous  and  ap- 
parently unimportant  work  of  putting  rough  surfaces  on 
millstones. 

Division  of  occupations  also  takes  place  in  accordance 

with  geographical  location.     This  is  of  great  importance 

, .      in    a    laro:e    community    like    our    nation.     In 

Geographi-  °  -'  .       i         ,  •    r  i 

c?J  division  some  parts  of  the  country  corn  is  the  chief  prod- 
of  labor  ^^^  .  ^^  others  cotton  ;  in  others  fruit.  In  some 
parts  cattle  or  sheep  raising  takes  the  place  of  farming ; 
in  other  parts  mining.  The  different  metals  are  found  in 
different  localities.  In  one  place  lumbering  is  the  chief 
occupation  ;  in  another  place  fishing.  One  region  becomes 
famous   for   its   cotton    manufactures ;    another   for   silk ; 


THF   BUSINESS   LIFE  OF  THE   COMMUNlTTi  91 

another  for  iron.  The  gardener  whc  gives  his  whole  time 
to  raising  vegetables  to  supply  the  market  of  some  small 
cit)'  receives  in  return  bread  from  wheat  raised  in  the  Da- 
kotas;  clothing  manufactured  in  New  England  from  cotton 
raised  in  Texas,  or  from  wool  raised  in  Montana.  He 
uses  wagons  made  in  Indiana  of  timber  raised  in  the  South 
and  of  iron  mined  in  Minnesota  and  smelted  in  Ohio. 


A  Market  Scene. 

In  these  days  of  large  business  enterprises,  the  men  whc 
run  the  machines  and  perform  labor  of  other  kinds  are 
not  usually  the  men  who  furnish  these  machines  Dependence 
and  the  other  forms  of  capital.     The  men  who  °^  employer 

and  em- 
furnish  the  capital  and  those  who  furnish  the  pioyeeon 

labor  are  dependent  on  each  other.     It  is  true  ®**^'*  ®^" 

that  they  often  act  toward  each  other  as  if  their  interests 

were    antagonistic.     Although    the    workingmen   are   far 

more    numerous    than    their  employers,  the    latter  have 

usually  had  the  advantage    in    a   conflict,  because    their 

greater    wealth    enables   them    to    sustain    themselves    in 

idleness  for  a  time  without  suffering.     In  order  to  protect 


92  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

their  own  interests  workingmen  in  many  trades  and  indus- 
tries have  organized  themselves  into  nniotis,  so  that  by 
acting  together  they  may  secure  from  their  employers  a 
recognition  of  their  rights.  This  is  well,  provided  that 
the  unions  remember  always  that  their  employers  and  the 
community  at  large  also  have  rights  which  must  be 
regarded.  "  Neither  can  take  advantage  of  the  other  with- 
out the  common  interest  suffering.  The  mutual  object 
of  both  is  to  produce  the  best  possible  article  at  the  lowest 
possible  price,  in  order  to  place  it  within  reach  of  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  purchasers." 

Thus  we  see  how  every  worker  in  the  community  is 
dependent  on  all  the  other  workers.  The  success  of  each 
depends  very  largely  on  how  well  the  whole  business 
organization  of  the  community  does  its  work.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  community  depends  on  each  individual, 
and  on  each  class  of  workers,  to  do  his  or  its  work  well. 
Each  citizen,  as  a  worker  in  the  business  life  of  the  com- 
munity, has  upon  him  a  great  responsibility. 

A  man  engages  in  business  activities  primarily  to  satisfy 
the  wants  of  himself  and  his  family.  But  he  can  do  this 
The  life  of  a  only  by  performing  work  that  will  be  useful  to 
community    others,  and  that  will  help  to  satisfy  their  desires. 

is  a  life  of  .  .  i-       i-i  i  i 

productive  ^  carpenter,  m  order  to  gain  a  livelihoad  and 
work  iQ  provide  his  family  with  the  comforts  of  life, 

must  build  houses  for  others.  He  may  be  most  concerned 
about  ivhat  he  will  receive  for  his  work  ;  the  community  is 
most  concerned  about  ivhat  lie  produces.  If  he  does  care- 
ful, skillful  work,  he  is  considered  a  valuable  member  of 
the  community.  If  he  is  careless,  or  a  poor  workman,  he 
is  considered  in  that  respect  a  poor  citizen.  Good  citizen- 
ship shows  itself  in  the  productive  work  of  a  man  more 
than  in  any  other  way. 


THE    BUSINESS    LIFE    OF    THE    COMMUNITY 


93 


The  history  of  our  country  has  been  very  largely  a  story 
of  the  clearing  of  forests,  of  the  reclaiming  of  the  soil 
for  agriculture,  of  the  opening  of  mines,  and  of  ^j^^  Guilders 
the  growth  of  commerce,  manufactures,  and  of  our 
cities.  It  is  a  story  of  the  building  of  railroads 
and  steamboats,  of  telegraphs  and  telephones.  The  men 
who  have  done  these  things  are  as  much  the  builders  of 


Two  Views  of  an  Engine  Factory. 

Showing  how  the  factory  has  been  given  attractive  appearance. 

Notice  the  vine-covered  buildings  and  smoke-stack. 

our  nation  as  the  men  who.  made  our  constitutions  and 
organized  our  governments.  The  men  and  women  who  are 
to-day  working  on  the  farms  or  in  the  mines,  in  factories 
and  shops,  in  stores  and  offices,  or  in  other  lines  of  business, 
are  as  truly  doing  their  country  a  service  as  those  who 
hold  the  offices  of  government.  Both  kinds  of  service 
are  necessary,  and  in  either  case  patriotic  citizenship 
consists  in  giving  to  the  community  the  best  service 
possible. 

It  is  important  that  the  citizen  should  realize  that,  in 
the  work  by  which  he  makes  a  living,  he  has  a  great 
responsibility  toward  the  other  members  of  the  community. 


94  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 

The  employee  is  responsible  to  his  employer  for  the  very 

best  work  he  can  do,  for  the  employer  is  depending  on  him 

to  help  in  producing    the   best    possible  article 

sibiiityof       for  the  use  of  the   community.     The   employer, 

thecitizen     ^^    ^]^g    other    hand,    is    responsible    for    the 
in  business  ^ 

welfare  of  those  who  work  for  him.  A  con- 
stantly increasing  number  of  employers  are  coming  to 
realize  that  this  means  more  than  merely  giving  fair  wages 
to  the  employees  and  are  providing  them  with  better  places 
in  which  to  work,  with  healthful  and  pleasant  surroundings, 
and  with  arrangements  for  their  comfort  and  convenience. 
In  some  cases  employers  are  even  aiding  their  workmen 
to  secure  pleasant  and  comfortable  homes,  knowing  that 
the  better  their  workmen  are  cared  for  by  them,  the  more 
earnestly  will  they  work  for  the  success  of  the  business. 
Every  citizen  in  his  business  life  is  under  obligations  to 
the  community  as  a  whole.  No  man's  business  belongs  to 
.  .  .  ^,  himself  alone  ;  it  belongs  also  to  the  community, 
business  is     The  community  enters  into  a  sort  of  agreement 

^ZL  ^         with  him  in  regard  to  his  business,  to  the  effect 
commu-  c)  ' 

nity's  that  if  he  will  perform  a  certain  service  for  the 

community,  the  community  will  .support  him. 
If  he  is  a  merchant  or  a  manufacturer,  the  community 
has  a  right  to  expect  from  him  honest  goods  and  full 
measure.  If  he  is  a  mechanic,  it  has  the  right  to  expect 
from  him  good  workmanship.  If  he  is  engaged  in  the 
management  of  a  railroad,  it  has  a  right  to  demand  safety, 
comfort,  and  reasonable  rates.  No  matter  what  his 
occupation  may  be,  nor  how  large  or  how  small  his 
business,  he  is  sure  to  show  the  character  of  his  citizenship 
in  the  character  of  the  product  of  his  labor. 

But  the  citizen  in  business  has  a  greater  responsibility 
than  for  the  quality  of  the  product  of  his  work.     Business 


THE    BUSINESS   LIFE   CF   THE   COMMUNITY         95 

life,  and  in  fact  the  whde  life  of  the  community,  could 
not  be  successfully  car:  led  on  if  it  were  not  for  the  con- 
fidence that  men  have  in  each  other.     Think  for  jhe  respon- 

a  moment  what  confusion  and  unhappiness  there  sibiiity  of 

the  citizen 
would  be  if   it   were    not   for   this   conhdence.   for  con- 
When  we  ride  on  the  railroad,  we  need  confidence  fi^ence 
in  the  excellence  of  the  work  of  those  who  made  the  loco- 
motive, of  those  who  laid  the  rails  aiid  built  the  bridges, 
of  those  who  run  the  train,  and  of  those  who  arrange  the 
schedule  and  give  the    signals.     When    we  buy  food,  or 
clothing,  or  any  other  product  of  human  labor,  we  must 
have  confidence  in  the  merchant  and  in  the  manufacturer 
before   we  willingly  part  with  the   money  that   we  have 
earned  by  our  own  efforts.     When  we  receive  money  for 
our  work,  we  must  have  confidence  in  the  government  that 
stamps  the  bills  with  its  promise  to  pay  a  certain  sum. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  business  dealings 
between  individuals,  between  communities,  and  between 
nations,  is  carried  on  by  a  system  of  credit,  which  is  based 
on  the  confidence  that  men  feel  in  one  another  and  in  the 
arrangements  of  the  business  world.  Men  would  never 
deposit  their  money  in  banks  if  it  were  not  for  the  confi- 
dence they  feel  in  the  banks,  and  in  the  government  and 
laws  that  are  behind  them.  Every  accident  on  the  rail- 
roads causes  men  to  lose  confidence,  not  only  in  the  man 
who  was  guilty  of  carelessness,  but  also  in  the  management 
of  railroads  in  general.  When  an  employer  finds  that  he 
cannot  trust  one  of  his  employees,  it  tends  to  destroy  con- 
fidence in  all  employees.  Every  failure  on  the  part  of  an 
individual  to  meet  his  business  obligations  tends  to  destroy 
the  confidence  of  men  in  one  another's  business  integrity. 
In  short,  every  exhibition  of  dishonesty  or  inefficiency  on 
the    part   of  a  citizen  in   his  business  relations  helps  to 


96  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

undermine  the  confidence  of  the  community,  and  to  shake 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  community  rests. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  marks  of  good  citizenship  to  per- 
form the  most  efficient  work  possible,  whatever  one's  call- 
ins:.     We  call  it  patriotism  when  a  man  gives 

Patriotism  =>  ^,.,_.^  ,, 

in  business  all  that  he  has,  even  his  life  if  necessary,  for  the 
^*  good  of  his  country,  without   stopping  to  con- 

sider whether  he  will  receive  an  equal  benefit  in  return. 
There  is  no  higher  type  of  patriotism  than  that  which, 
leads  a  citizen  to  perform  his  best  service  for  the  com- 
munity in  his  daily  calling,  not  for  what  he  can  get  for  it, 
but  tor  what  he  can  give. 

FOR  mVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  out  what  the  early  settlers  in  your  community  had  to  pay  for 
the  land.  What  is  the  same  land  worth  now?  What  has  produced 
the  change  in  value? 

2.  Compare  the  extent  to  which  a  farmer's  family  is  dependent  on 
others  in  making  a  living,  with  that  to  which  a  city  family  is  dependent. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  twelve  or  fifteen  diiferent  occupations  in  your  com- 
munity. How  many  of  these  did  each  family  have  to  carry  on  for  itself 
in  the  early  days  of  your  community? 

4.  What  advantages  can  you  see  in  a  division  of  tasks  or  occupa- 
tions?    What  disadvantages? 

5.  Visit  a  factory  in  your  community  and  report  on  the  division  of 
labor  that  you  find  there. 

6.  Take  the  list  of  occupations  mentioned  in  the  paragraph  on  geo- 
graphical division  of  occupations  (page  90)  and  locate  on  a  map  of  the 
United  States  a  region  characterized  by  each.  Show  how  geographical 
conditions  determine  this  division  of  occupations. 

7.  Is  there  a  geographical  division  of  occupations  in  your  state? 
Draw  a  map  of  your  state  and  locate  characteristic  industries. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  workmen  that  have  been 
eno-ao-ed  in  producing  the  different  objects  in  your  schoolroom.  What 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  have  contributed  to  the  equipment 
of  your  schoolroom  ? 

9.  Show  how  a  strike  of  workmen  against  their  employers  injures  the 
employers;  the  workmen  themselves  ;  the  whole  community.  (Use  for 
illustration  a  strike  that  has  occurred  in  your  own  community.) 


THE   BUSINESS    LIFE   OF   THE   COMMUNITY 


97 


10.  Is  it  true,  in  your  community,  that  tlie  most  useful  citizens  are  tliose 
who  care  more  about  the  excellence  of  their  work  than  about  what  they 
receive  for  it?     Illustrate. 

11.  So  far  as  your  experience  goes,  what  buys  have  been  most  success- 
ful in  business  —  those  who  make  it  a  practice  to  do  all  they  can  for  their 
employers,  or  those  who  have  tried  to  do  the  least  possible  ? 

12.  Who  have  been  some  of  the  builders  of  your  own  community  by 
reason  of  their  business  life.''     Explain. 

13.  Show  how  a  few  dishonest  pupils  in  a  school  will  tend  to  destroy 
confidence  throughout  the  whole  school.  What  are  some  of  the  results 
of  this  loss  cf  confidence  on  the  life  of  the  school? 

14.  Do  you  know  of  any  case  in  your  community  in  which  the  failure  of 
some  individual  to  do  his  whole  duty  in  business  has  shaken  the  confidence 
of  the  entire  community? 

15.  Are  there  any  business  establishments  in  your  community  in  which 
special  efforts  are  made  to  provide  for  the  welfare  and  comfort  of  the  em- 
ployees? What  is  the  effect  upon  the  employees?  Upon  the  business? 
Upon  the  community  ? 

REFERENCES 

Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XLVII,  XLVIII. 

Smith,  Adam,  "The  Wealth  of  Nations,"  Book  I,  chapters  I-III  (division  ol 
labor) . 

Meakin,  Budgett,  "  Model  Factories  and  Villages."  Gives  an  excellent  account 
of  what  employers  are  doing  for  their  employees  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

Earle,  Alice  Morse,  "Colonial  Dames  and  Good  Wives,"  chapter  XII,  "  Fira 
side  Industries." 


The  Weli^kept  Home  of  av  Employee  of  a  Mining  Company  in 

Michigan. 

This  company  is  much  interested  in  the  welfare  of  its  employees, 

and  encourages  them  in  the  improvement  of  their  homes. 


CHAPTER   XII 

HOW   THE   GOVERNMENT    AIDS  THE   CITIZEN   BY   CON-. 
TROLLING   BUSINESS   RELATIONS 

Security  in  one's  material  possessions  has  always  been 
one  of  the  most  sacred  rights  of  Americans.  The  Revolu- 
The  sacred-  tionary  War  was  brought  on  because  the  Enghsh 
nessof  p;overnment   persistently   refused   to   recognize 

property  t>  r  y  o 

rights  this  right    of   the    colonists.     It  took    away    a 

part  of  their  property  by  taxation  without  asking  their 
consent.  It  passed  laws  interfering  with  their  commerce 
and  manufactures.  It  quartered  troops  in  their  houses 
without  their  permission.  It  gave  its  officers  unlimited 
power  to  search  their  houses  and  ships  without  duly  pro- 
tecting the  rights  of  innocent  and  law-abiding  citizens. 
When  independence  had  been  won  and  a  constitution  was 
to  be  adopted,  the  people  demanded  a  sure  protection  of 
this  right  to  their  property.  They  refused  to  ratify  the 
Constitution  until  amendments  guaranteeing  security  in 
their  possessions  had  been  promised. 

The  colonists  recognized  the  necessity  of  some  regulation 
of  their  property  rights  and  of  their  business  relations  by 
The  desire  government.  Nowhere  else  do  individuals  come 
for  self-  jntQ  conflict  with  each  other  so  often  as  in  their 
in  business  busincss  relations.  Most  of  the  disputes  brought 
matters  before  the  courts  for  settlement  are  over  busi- 
ness or  property  matters.  Such  matters  concern  the 
individual  so  closely  that  the  colonists  believed  that 
their    regulation    should    be    under    their    own    control 

98 


GOVERNMENT    AND   BUSINESS   LIFE  99 

through  their  local  colonial  governments.  The  same 
idea  prevailed  when  our  Constitution  was  framed.  Busi- 
ness matters  were  not  placed  under  the  authority  of  the 
national  government,  except  such  as  concern  the  rela- 
tions between  citizens  of  this  country  and  those  of  foreign 
countries,  or  between  citizens  of  two  or  more  states.  Each 
state  has  unHmited  control  over  all  business  relations 
within  its  own  borders.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  the  policy 
of  our  state  governments  to  leave  to  each  citizen  as  much 
individual  freedom  in  his  business  activities  as  is  consistent 
with  the  welfare  of  the  community. 

When  a  group  of  men  wish  to  organize  as  a  corporation 
for  manufacturing  purposes,  or  to  build  and  operate  a  rail- 
road, or  to  do  an  insurance  business,  it  is  almost   state 
always  the  state  that  gives  them  the  authority,   control  over 

....  .all  ordinary 

The  state  has  done  much  to  aid  business  by  the  business 
construction  of  roads  (see  chapter  XIII).  The  relations 
state  protects  the  interests  of  workingmen  and  working- 
women.  Most  of  the  states  have  laws  permitting  the 
incorporation  of  labor  unions.  State  laws  place  restric- 
tions on  the  labor  of  children  and  limit  the  number  of 
hours  that  women  may  work  in  factories.  State  laws  also 
provide  for  the  health  of  workers  in  factories  and  mines 
by  requiring  employers  to  maintain  good  sanitary  con- 
ditions, and  by  a  system  of  inspection  to  see  that  the 
requirements  are  carried  out.  In  some  of  the  more  recent 
state  constitutions  special  safeguards  are  thrown  about  the 
working  classes.  In  the  older  constitutions  such  provisions 
are  not  found  because,  when  these  constitutions  were 
framed,  labor  organizations  and  the  factory  system  did  not 
e.xist.  In  these  older  states  the  legislatures  enact,  from 
time  to  time,  such  laws  as  seem  necessary.  State  laws 
also  endeavor  to  prevent  the  community  from  being  de- 


lOO  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

frauded  by  persons  and  corporations  that  seek  to  render 
dishonest  or  inefficient  service. 

During  the  Revolutionary  War  and  after  it,  until  the 
Constitution  was  adopted,  the  thirteen  states  were  bound 
together  in  a  very  loose  Confederation  merely 
a  national  for  purposcs  of  common  defense.  There  were 
government  £g^  \3.ws  applying  to  all  the  states  alike.  There 
was  little  uniformity  among  them  in  their  methods  of 
regulating  the  business  relations  of  their  citizens.  Each 
state  had  its  own  form  of  money.  Each  was  at  liberty  to 
levy  taxes  on  goods  brought  from  other  states,  thus 
tending  to  check  commerce.  So  little  uniformity  was 
there,  so  bitter  were  the  jealousies  among  the  states,  and 
so  great  did  the  confusion  become,  that  the  Confederation 
was  about  to  fall  to  pieces,  and  the  fruits  of  the  Revolu- 
tion were  in  danger  of  being  lost.  It  was  this  danger, 
due  to  the  confusion  in  business  affairs,  that  led  to  the 
calling  of  the  convention  that  framed  our  present  Constitu- 
tion. It  was  found  necessary  to  have  a  government  that 
could  protect  the  common  business  interests  of  all  the 
states  alike. 

The  Congress  created  by  the  Constitution  was  given 
the  power,  which  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  had 
The  powers  not  had,  of  laying  and  collecting  taxes  "  for  the 
of  Congress    common  defense  and  general  welfare,"  but   it 

in  business  '^ 

matters  was  provided  that  the  "duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States " 
(Art.  I,  sec.  8,  clause  i).  The  states  were  forbidden 
to  lay  duties  on  goods  coming  in  from  other  states, 
so  that  interstate  commerce  should  not  be  interfered  with. 
Congress  was  also  given  power  "  to  regulate  commerce 
with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several  states,  and 
with   the    Indian   tribes"   (Art.   I,  sec.  8,  clause  3).      In 


GOVERNMENT   AND    BUSINESS    LIFE  lOI 

order  to  maintain  successful  business  relations  in  a  com- 
munity it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a  reliable  and  uniform 
system  of  money ;  and  since  this  was  a  matter  of  common 
interest  to  all  the  states,  Congress  was  given  power  "  to 
coin  money,"  and  to  "  regulate  the  value  thereof."  Under 
these  last  powers  Congress  has  established  mints  for  the 
coining  of  money,  has  enacted  laws  providing  for  a  uni- 
form currency,  and  has  established  a  national  banking 
system  which  is  not  merely  an  aid  to  the  government  in 
regulating  the  currency  and  in  borrowing  money,  but  is 
also  a  great  convenience  to  the  business  men  of  the  whole 
country.  Congress  was  also  given  the  power  to  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures  (Art.  I,  sec.  8,  clause  5). 

Under  its  power  to  regulate  foreign  commerce,  Con- 
gress has  levied  import  duties  sufficiently  heavy  to  check 
the  importation  of  foreign  manufactures,  and  Regulation 
thus  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  these,  of  foreign 
articles  at  home.  The  question  of  the  extent  °°^™^'''^^ 
to  which  imports  should  be  taxed  (the  tariff  question)  has 
always  been  one  of  the  main  issues  dividing  the  great 
political  parties  of  the  United  States.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  our  national  history  Alexander  Hamilton  argued 
in  favor  of  import  duties  so  hig'h  as  to  exclude  foreign 
manufactures,  and  thus  to  protect  our  own  "  infant  indus- 
tries." Thomas  Jefferson,  who  believed  that  the  chief 
sources  of  America's  wealth  would  be  agriculture  and 
commerce,  argued  against  such  protective  duties.  He 
thought  that  a  "  free  trade  "  policy  would  stimulate  com- 
merce and  agriculture. 

Hamilton's  protective  policy  has  prevailed  during  a 
large  part  of  our  history,  although  always  opposed  by  one 
great  party.  To-day  conditions  are  quite  different  from 
those  of  his  time.     We  have  become  a  great  manufactur- 


I02  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

ing  nation.  Our  industries  are  no  longer  "infant,"  but 
are  very  largely  in  the  hands  of  wealthy  and  powerful 
corporations.  The  opponents  of  the  protective  tariff  hold 
that  it  tends  to  raise  prices  and  thus  to  increase  the  cost 
of  living.  Its  friends  argue,  on  the  other  hand,  that  it 
helps  to  maintain  high  wages  by  protecting  the  American 
workman  against  competition  with  the  cheaper  labor  of 
foreign  countries.  The  whole  question  is  a  very  difficult 
one,  and  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  devise  a  tariff  that  will 
be  wholly  just  to  every  producer  as  well  as  to  the  con- 
sumer in  all  parts  of  our  country.  A  new  tariff  was 
enacted  by  Congress  in  191 3,  materially  lowering  the 
duties  on  many  important  articles.  It  is  known  as  the 
Underwood  Tariff,  taking  the  name  of  the  chairman  of 
the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, who  was  largely  responsible  for  its  form. 

Congress  has  also  established  a  consular  system  to  look 
after  the  commercial  relations  of  this  country  with  foreign 
nations.  Consuls  are  appointed  by  our  government  to  go 
to  the  important  cities  of  all  civilized  countries.  Among 
their  many  duties,  they  investigate  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  the  countries  to  which  they  are  sent,  try 
to  create  a  market  in  those  countries  for  products  of  the 
United  States,  and,  in  general,  try  to  stimulate  favorable 
business  relations  between  our  country  and  all  the  world. 

Under  its  power  to  regulate  commerce  among  the  sev- 
eral states,  Congress  has  enacted  a  number  of  laws  regu- 
lating the  activities  of  railroads  and  other  corporations 
whose  business  affects  the  entire  nation.  In  1887  an 
Interstate  Commerce  Act  was  passed  to  prevent  cer- 
tain unjust  business  methods  on  the  part  of  transpor- 
tation companies,  such  as  charging  rates  that  discriminate 
in  favor  of  one  individual  or  locality  as  against  another. 


GOVERNMENT   AND    BUSINESS   LIFE  103 

This  law  created  an  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
with  authority  to  inquire  into  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness of  "  common  carriers,"  such  as  railroads,  Regulation 
steamship  lines,  or  express  companies.  A  later  of  interstate 
law  gives  the  Commission  power  also  to  fix  the 
maximum  rates  which  may  be  charged  by  such  "common 
carriers." 

The  history  of  business  development  in  rec.ent  years 
has  been  marked  by  the  growth  of  great  business  organi- 
zations known  as  corporations.  With  the  enormous  capital 
at  their  command,  and  with  the  economies  of  management 
made  possible  by  doing  business  on  a  large  scale,  these 
corporations  have  been  enabled  to  gain  control  of  many 
lines  of  business.  Then,  in  some  cases,  a  num-  Reg^iatjon 
ber  of  corporations  in  the  same  line  of  business  of 
have  formed  combinations  known  as  trusts  '^°'"P°'"* 
which  still  further  control  business  and  prices.  As  a 
result  of  abuses  of  this  power  Congress,  in  1890,  passed  an 
"Anti-Trust  Law"  which  made  illegal  any  "contract, 
combination  ...  or  conspiracy  in  restraint  of  trade " 
among  the  states  or  with  foreign  nations,  and  made  any 
person  liable  to  punishment  who  should,  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  others,  attempt  to  monopolize  any  part  of 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce.  In  1903  a  National 
Bureau  of  Corporations  was  created  to  investigate  the 
organization  and  management  of  corporations.  The  extent 
to  which  corporations  and  trusts  should  be  controlled  by 
government,  and  the  means  by  which  it  should  be  done, 
are  among  the  greatest  questions  before  our  country  at 
the  present  time. 

In  1906  a  Food  and  Drugs  Act  was  passed  to  prevent 
"  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  transportation "  of  impure, 
falsely    labeled,    poisonous,    or    injurious    "foods,    drugs, 


704  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

medicines,  and  liquors,"  and  a  Bureau  of  Chemistry  was 
created  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  investigate 
such  matters.  ' 

These  laws  illustrate  how  the  growth  of  business  inter- 
ests affecting  the  entire  nation  has  led  the  government  to 
provide  means  of  national  cooperation  unthought  of  by 
the  makers  of  our  Constitution.  Among  these  means  are 
three  important  departments  of  government,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  the  Department  of  Commerce,  and 
the  Department  of  Labor,  the  last  two  of  which  were 
established  as  separate  departments  in  191 3. 

While  some  of  this  regulation  of  business  by  the  state 
and  national  governments  imposes  serious  restrictions  on 
The  purpose  particular  business  interests,  its  purpose  is  nev- 
of  govern-      erthelcss  to  further  the  interests  of  the  country 

ment  is  ,  _,,  .    , 

I  to  afford  at  large.  The  purpose  of  the  government  is  not 
-^  opportunity  ^q  hedge  the  citizen  about  with  restrictions  on 
his  activities,  but  to  afford  to  all  the  greatest  possible 
opportunity  for  material  prosperity.  Sometimes  the 
interests  of  the  individual  must  yield  before  the  interests 
of  the  community  ;  but  usually,  in  the  long  run,  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  community  will  also  be  the  advantage 
of  the  individual.  Occasionally  a  law  is  unwisely  or 
dishonestly  enacted  which  benefits  a  small  class  to  the 
detriment  of  the  majority  of  the  people.  Such  legislation 
is  un-American,  for  the  underlying  principle  of  American 
government  is  the  greatest  possible  good  to  the  greatest 
possible  number. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

I.  Which  of  the  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  guarantee  the  property  rights  of  citizens?  Explain  each 
of  these  amendments. 


GOVERNMENT   AND   BUSINESS    LIFE  105 

2.  Get  a  list,  or  summary,  of  the  laws  passed  during  the  last  session 
of  your  state  legislature,  and  note  about  what  proportion  of  them  are 
for  the  regulation  of  business  matters.  Study  the  list  to  get  an  idea  of 
the  different  kinds  of  business  matters  dealt  with. 

3.  Is  there  anything  in  your  state  constitution  for  the  protection  of 
the  interests  of  the  workingmen?  Anything  for  the  regulation  of 
business  corporations? 

4.  What  laws  are  there  in  your  state  for  the  regulation  of  the  labor 
of  children  ?     Of  women  ? 

5.  Is  there  any  system  of  factory  inspection  in  your  state?  If  so, 
what  is  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  inspection? 

6.  Mention  some  recent  laws  passed  by  Congress  under  its  power 
to  regulate  interstate  commerce. 

~-  7.  How  does  a  bank  help  business  men?  Are  there  any  other  banks 
besides  national  banks?     Explain. 

8.  How  does  money  help  in  the  transaction  of  business? 

9.  Investigate  the  organization  and  duties  of  the  consular  service. 

10.  Report  on  the  various  activities  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  ; 
of  Commerce  ;  of  Labor. 

11.  Make  a  report  on  the  business  confi.ision  during  the  time  of  the 
Confederation. 

--12.  Discuss  in  class,  in  the  simplest  terms  possible,  the  meaning  of 
^•protection  "  and  '■  free  trade."  Illustrate  with  concrete  cases.  What 
is  the  attitude  of  the  present  administration  at  Washington  on  the 
.subject? 

^13.  Discuss  in  class,  in  simple  terms,  the  meaning  of  "corporation  " 
and  "  trust."  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  present  administration  in 
regard  to  their  control  ? 

REFERENCES 

A  copy  of  the  state  constitution  should  be  on  the  teacher's  desk  for 
reference. 

It  is  probable  that  a  .summary  of  the  laws  passed  by  the  last  legislature 
can  be  obtained  at  the  city  or  county  offices.  If  not,  it  can  be  obtained 
from  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  of  your  state.  It  would  be  desir- 
able to  have  on  the  teacher's  desk  a  copy  of  the  revised  statutes  of  the 
state. 

Copies  of  the  laws  regulating  the  labor  of  women  and  children,  factory 
inspection,  etc.,  can  usually  be  had  by  applying  to  the  bureaus  or  depart- 
ments of  the  state  government  dealing  with  such  matters.  The  general 
treatment  of  these  subjects,  as  also  of  the  United  States  mint  and  the 
consular  service,  can  be  found  in  the  New  International  Encyclopedia. 


I06  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Fiske's  "  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History  "  has  an  excellent 
chapter  on  the  business  confusion  during  the  Confederation.  (Chapter 
IV,  "  Drifting  toward  Anarchy.") 

Hart's  ''  Actual  Government  "  will  again  be  found  useful  in  connection 
with  this  chapter ;  especially  the  chapters  on  "  Commercial  Organiza- 
tion "  (chapter  XXVI)  and  '' P'oreign  Commerce"  (chapter  XXIV), 
and  the  section  on  '*  Consuls,"  on  page  436. 

Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XL-XLIV. 

Beard,  "American  Citizenship,"  pp.  175-197;  231-236. 

Latest  Annual  Reports  of  the  Secretaries  of  Agriculture,  Commerce, 
and  Labor. 

"Department  of  Commerce:  Condensed  History,  Duties,  and  Prac- 
tical Operation,"  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  1913. 

Report  on  Condition  of  Woman  and  Child  Wage-Earners  in  the 
United  States,  vol.  XIX,  "Labor  Laws  and  Factory  Conditions." 
Prepared  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Charles  P. 
Neil,  Government  Printing  OlSce,  Washington,  191 2.  | 


CHAPTER   XIII 

HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   AIDS   THE  CITIZEN   IN   TRANS- 
PORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION 

You  will  recall  that  in  seeking  a  site  for  the  community 
described  in  the  first  chapter,  the  exploring  committee  was 
to  notice  whether  there  were  roads  or  canals  near  Community 
by.     The  very  nature  of  a  community  implies      eimpies 

J  J  J  r  communi- 

that  there  must  be  communication,  for  without  cation 
it  there  could  be  no  way  of  acting  together.  One  of  the 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  united  action  among  the  thirteen 
American  colonies  was  the  absence  of  good  roads  connect- 
ing them.  The  trip  from  New  York  to  Boston  in  those 
times  required  six  days.  A  traveler  tells  us  of  spending  a 
month  in  making  the  journey  from  New  York  to  Washing- 
ton at  a  little  later  time.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  not 
strange  that  it  was  difficult  to  develop  a  spirit  of  union 
among  the  colonies. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  it  cost  1^125  to  haul 
a  ton  of  goods  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg  by  wagon, 
the  only  means  of  transportation.     It  cost  $2.50  ^ostof 
to  carry  a  bushel  of   salt  three  hundred  miles,   transporta- 
Wheat   could  not  profitably  be  transported    by  *'°° 
wagon  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  because  it 
could  not  be  sold  at  a  price  to  cover  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion.    When  the  cost  of  transportation  was  so  great,  the 
commonest  articles  of  household  use  to-day  were  luxuries 
which  the  people  could  not  afford.      The  cause  of  all  this 
was  excessively  bad  roads. 

107 


I08  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  food  supply  of  the  nation  comes  from  the  farms. 
The  raw  materials  for  manufacture  come  from  the  farms, 
J  the  forest,  and  the  mines.    The  comfort  of  living 

of  country  for  all  of  US,  in  the  city  as  well  as  in  the  country, 
^°^  ^  depends  in  a  great  degree  on  the  ease  with  which 

these  raw  products  can  be  brought  from  the  country  districts. 
It  is  said  that  ninety-five  per  cent  of  every  load  by  train, 
steamship,  or  express,  must  be  carted  over  a  highway. 
The  country  roads  are  the  foundation  of  our  transportation 
system.  And  yet  they  have  been  given  comparatively  little 
attention,  and  America  is  far  behind  many  other  civilized 
countries  in  the  construction  and  preservation  of  roads. 

The  character  of  the  land  has  great  importance  in  de- 
termining good  or  bad  roads.  In  the  fertile  prairies  of  the 
GeoCTaphy  ^^st,  although  the  land  is  almost  as  level  as  a 
and  good  floor,  the  roads  often  become  impassable  in  wet 
weather.  Where  there  are  hills,  the  cost  of 
hauling  is  twice  as  much  as  in  a  level  country,  because 
only  half  as  much  can  be  hauled  in  each  load.  The  effect 
of  the  character  of  the  land  on  roadways  seems  not  to  have 
been  fully  considered  in  America.  Many  of  our  roads  run 
straight  over  hills,  or  through  swamp  land,  which  adds  both 
to  the  difificulties  of  transportation  and  to  the  expense  of 
keeping  the  roads  in  repair. 

The  methods  of  road  building  and  repairing  in  the 
United  States  have  been  wasteful  of  the  people's  money. 
Wasteful  Not  only  has  little  care  been  exercised,  f re- 
road  °  ^°  quently,  in  the  location  of  the  roads,  but 
making  their  Construction  and  repair  have  been  left 
to  the  farmers  in  the  neighborhood.  In  Indiana,  for 
example,  each  township  trustee  levies  an  annual  tax  on  the 
property  of  the  farmers  for  the  purpose  of  road  improve- 
ment.    This   tax   may   be   worked   out    by   the   farmers. 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         109 

Every  able-bodied  man  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one 

and  fifty  years,  residing  in  a  road  district  of  a  township,  is 

required  to  perform  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  four 

days'  labor  on  the  public  roads  each  year  or  to  furnish  a 

substitute;  or  he  may  pay  to  the  road  overseer  $1.50  a 

day  for  each  day  that  he  should  have  worked. 

The  making  of  a  good  road  requires  scientific  knowledge 

and   skill,  and  is   work  that  should  be  supervised   by   a 

trained  engineer.     The  practice  of  requiring  the  improve- 

farmers  to  work  on  the  roads  should  be  aban-  ™^°'  ^ 

methods  of 
doned,  and  the  tax,  paid  in  money,  should  be  road 

devoted  to  the  employment  of  skilled  engineers,  making 
Improvement  in  the  character  of  the  roads  has  been 
secured  in  some  cases  by  placing  their  management  in  the 
hands  of  the  county  government  instead  of  leaving  it 
under  the  control  of  the  township.  Management  by  the 
county  helps  to  secure  more  uniformly  good  roads  over  a 
larger  area,  and  makes  it  possible  to  secure  better  super- 
vision, because  the  road  taxes  of  the  whole  county  can  be 
devoted  to  the  employment  of  a  county  engineer.  In  those 
sections  where  the  people  have  shown  that  they  really 
want  good  roads,  much  progress  has  been  made  toward 
getting  them.  The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  arouse  pub- 
lic interest  in  the  matter.  That  there  has  been  so  little 
interest  in  the  past  is  due  to  ignorance  of  the  importance 
of  the  roads  to  the  entire  community,  and  of  the  methods 
by  which  they  may  be  secured.  In  the  last  few  years  the 
National  Good  Roads  Association  has  done  much  to  arouse 
public  interest  and  to  secure  legislation  in  many  states. 
The  farmers  are  likely  to  object  to  the  first  cost  of  im- 
provements, until  it  is  shown  that  the  better  roads  enable 
them  to  haul  larger  loads  and  to  make  quicker  time,  thus 
saving,  in  a  few  years,  more  than  the  improvements  cost. 


no  THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE  CITIZEN 

In  the  beginning  of  our  national  history  the  question  of 
road  making  became  very  important  in  connection  with 
Construe-  the  Settlement  of  the  West  and  the  preservation 
tion  of  early  of  the  Union.     Roads  and  canals  were  proposed 

highways         . 

left  to  the  in  great  numbers.  The  question  at  once  arose 
states  whether     the    national    or    the    state     govern- 

ment should  aid  in  constructing  highways.  The  only 
clauses  in  the  Constitution  that  could  be  interpreted  as 
giving  the  national  government  authority  to  construct 
roads  were  those  bestowing  the  power  "  to  establish  post 
offices  and  post  roads,"  "  to  regulate  commerce  with 
foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  states,"  and  to 
make  war.  The  national  government  was  cautious  about 
exercising  powers  not  explicitly  given  to  it,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  highways  was  left  chiefly  to  the  states  or  to  private 
enterprise.  Many  turnpikes  were  built  by  private  com- 
panies, for  the  use  of  which  tolls  were  charged. 

The  one  great  example  of  road  building  by  the  United 
States  government  is  the  National,  or  Cumberland,  Road. 
This  road  was  authorized  by  Congress  in  1806, 
National        and    was    to    extend    from    Cumberland,    Md., 
^°^  into  Ohio,  to  aid  in  the  settlement  of  the  West. 

It  was  extended  finally  as  far  west  as  Illinois.  It  after- 
ward passed  under  the  control  of  the  states  through  which 
it  ran,  and  thence  was  given  over  to  the  management  of 
the  counties. 

^  The  introduction  of  car-.als  and  of  railroads  caused  the 
private  turnpikes  to  become  unprofitable,  and  the  feeling 
St  n-    S^^w  that  the  country  highways  were  a  matter 

agement  of  for  local  management.  At  the  present  time  it 
roads  jg   recognized   that   good   country  roads   are   a 

benefit,  not  only  to  the  farmers  Hving  on  them,  but  also 
to  the  people  of  that  county,  and  even  to  the  whole  state, 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         1 1  I 

including  the  towns  and  cities.  Some  of  the  states,  mostly 
in  the  East,  are  therefore  making  a  systematic  reform  in 
road  making.  The  movement  is  slowly  spreading  west. 
In  New  Jersey  a  state  highway  law  was  passed  in  1892.  It 
created  a  state  commissioner  of  public  roads,  and  provided 
that  when  two  thirds  of  the  property  owners  along  a  road 
petition  the  county  for  improvements  they  shall  be  made. 


Old  Wooden  Bridge  on  the  National  Road  crossing  White  River, 
Indianapolis. 

One  tenth  of  the  cost  is  paid  by  the  property  owners  along 
the  road,  one  third  by  the  state,  and  the  remainder  by  the 
people  of  the  county  in  which  the  improvement  is  made. 
The  expense  is  thus  distributed  over  the  whole  state, 
although  the  main  part  is  borne  by  the  immediate  com- 
munity. The  work  is  done  under  the  direction  of  a  county 
engineer,  but  must  be  approved  by  the  state  commission. 
Similar  systems  have  been  adopted  in  other  states. 

Road  making,  especially  in  an  unsettled  country,  is  dif- 
ficult, and  the  cost  of  transportation  by  wagon  is  heavy. 
In    the   early  days   of    our   country,  therefore.  River  trans- 
water  routes  were  always  used  when  possible,   portation 
The  rivers  were  th.^  natural  highways  into  the  West,  and 


112  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE  CITIZEN 

schemes  were  early  proposed  to  improve  them,  as  whert 
Washington  urged  the  improvement  of  the  Potomac.  The 
invention  of  the  steamboat  by  Robert  Fulton  in  1806  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  water  transportation,  and  steamboats 
were  soon  plying  the  rivers,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West,  as  v/ell  as  the  Great  Lakes.  The  rapid  development 
of  railways  checked  the  use  of  the  rivers,  although  they  are 
still  an  important  factor  in  the  transportation  system  of 
our  country.  The  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes  has 
steadily  increased,  and  is  to-day  of  enormous  proportions. 

A  great  deal  has  been  done  by  state  and  national  gov- 
ernments for  the  improvement  of  our  rivers.  The  River 
and  Harbor  Bill,  passed  every  two  years  by  Congress, 
River  and  iuvolves  one  of  the  heaviest  items  of  expense 
harbor  im-  by  the  government.  For  the  benefit  of  naviga- 
tion on  our  coast  the  national  government  has 
established  a  coast  survey,  by  which  the  safe  channels  and 
the  dangerous  points  along  the  coast  are  charted  for  the 
guidance  of  seamen. 

The  advantages  of  water  communication  were  so  great  in 
the  days  before  railroads  that  the  construction  of  canals  was 
strongly  urged  by  many.  Albert  Gallatin,  in 
Jefferson's  administration,  proposed  a  series 
of  coastwise  canals  from  New  England  to  South  Carolina. 
There  was  great  opposition  to  such  improvements  at  na- 
tional expense ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  roads,  it  was  left 
chiefly  for  the  states  and  private  companies  to  undertake 
them.  The  most  successful  of  the  early  canals  built  under 
state  authority  was  the  Erie  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie 
with  the  Hudson  River  and  thus  with  the  Atlantic. 
Its  success  aroused  other  states  to  similar  enterprises. 
Some  of  these  canals  were  successfully  constructed  and 
operated,  but  most  of  them  were  not. 


TRANSPORTATION    AND    COMMUNICATION         113 

It  was  the  coming  of  the  railroads  that  caused  the  down- 
fall of  the  canal  schemes.  Under  certain  circumstances 
canals  remain,  nevertheless,  an  important  means  of  trans- 
portation. The  Erie  Canal  is  still  an  important  highway, 
and  the  state  of  New  York  is  now  spending  5 100,000,000  to 
improve  it  so  that  large  modern  freight  boats  may  navigate 
it.  The  United  States  government  has  built  a  number  of 
important  canals  in  recent  times  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing rapids  in  rivers,  or  to  connect  the  Great  Lakes.  One 
of  the  largest  of  these  is  the  canal  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  be- 
tween Lake  Superior  on  the  one  hand,  and  Lakes  Huron 
and  Michigan  on  the  other.  The  greatest  canal  ever  un- 
dertaken is  the  Panama  Canal  now  nearing  completion  by 
the  United  States.  It  has  been  constructed  under  the 
greatest  difficulties.  Its  cost  will  be  about  $400,000,000. 
It  will  shorten  the  voyage  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco by  8000  miles,  and  will  be  of  untold  value  to  the  entire 
world. 

Steam    railways    revolutionized    transportation.      They 

quickly  displaced  most  of  the  older  turnpikes  and  canals, 

and  made  travel  rapid  beyond  the  imagination 

'^  Railroads 

of  the  people  of  earlier  times.  They  soon  cov- 
ered the  country  with  a  network  of  tracks  until,  at  the 
present  time,  the  railways  of  the  United  States  would  en- 
circle the  globe  eight  and  a  half  times,  without  counting 
second  tracks  and  sidetracks.  The  importance  of  the  rail- 
roads in  the  building  of  our  nation  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. It  is  quite  possible  that  the  territory  we  now 
occupy  could  never  have  been  included  in  a  single  nation 
if  it  were  not  for  the  railroads  that  bind  together  its  widely 
separated  parts.  San  Francisco  and  New  York  are  to-day 
as  close  together,  so  far  as  ease  of  communication  is  con- 
cerned, as  New  York  and  Boston  were  in  Washington's 


114  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

time.  Because  of  their  great  service  to  the  country  in  this 
way,  railroads  have  at  various  times  been  aided  by  both 
state  and  national  governments.  The  national  govern- 
ment gave  to  many  states,  in  early  times,  large  tracts  of 
public  land,  the  revenue  from  which  was  to  be  used  in  the 
work  of  constructing  railroads.  When  the  great  Western 
roads  were  proposed.  Congress  gave  about  100,000,000 
acres  of  land  to  aid  in  the  enterprise. 

Railroads  in  this  country  are  owned  by  corporations 
chartered  by  the  state  governments  or,  in  some  cases,  by 
the  national  government.  Since  the  service  they  perform 
is  of  such  a  public  character  their  conduct  is  regulated  to 
a  large  extent,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  (p.  103).  Many  of  the  states  also  have  railway 
commissions  and  laws  to  regulate  the  business  of  railroads 
within  the  state  boundaries.  There  are  many  who  beHeve 
that  railroads  should  be  owned  by  the  government,  as  is  the 
case  in  many  European  countries. 

Another  most  important  step  in  binding  separate  com- 
munities  together,    and    especially   in    bringing    isolated 

-,,    , .  communities   into  relation    with    larger   centers 

Electnc  * 

interurban  of  life,  is  the  recent  growth  of  electric  inter- 
^°®^  urban   railways.     Many  little    communities   not 

heretofore  touched  by  steam  railways  have  been  brought 
into  the  stream  of  life  of  the  larger  community  about 
them.  There  was  a  time  not  long  ago  when  the  life  of  the 
farmer  was  a  life  of  isolation.  He  had  few  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  city,  and  seldom  came  into  intimate  contact 
with  the  life  of  the  world.  All  this  is  rapidly  being 
changed  by  the  building  of  electric  lines  through  the  rural 
districts,  together  with  the  establishment  of  free  rural  mail 
delivery  and  the  extension  of  telephones  in  the  country. 
By  these  means  city,  town,  and  rural  populations  are  being 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         115 

bound  more  closely  together.  The  people  mingle  mere 
freely.  What  affects  one  for  good  or  ill  more  quickly  affects 
all.  The  whole  country  is  being  united  more  firmly  into 
a  single  community. 


A   Portion  of  the  Lakk  I'roxt,  Chicago. 

Observe  the  railroad  yards,  the  piers  extending  into  the  lake,  and  the 

viaduct  over  the  railroads  to  the  piers. 

Compare  this  scene  with  that  in  the  illustration  on  page  14 

The  question  of  transportation  in  cities  is  an  important 
one,  and  presents  difficulties  not  found  in  rural  commu- 
nities and  small  towns.     First  in  importance  is  Transpor- 
the  street  itself.     Ail  cities  have  a  department  *ttie"/"he 
of  government  to  manage  the  construction  and   street 
repairing  of  the  streets,  and  employ  engineers  who  under- 


Il6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

Stand  the  principles  of  good  street  making.  It  is  too  often 
true,  however,  that  street  commissioners  and  other  officers 
in  control  of  the  streets  are  appointed  as  a  reward  for 
political  services  rather  than  because  of  fitness  for  the 
work.  Too  often  large  contracts  for  street  making  are 
let,  through  political  favoritism,  to  men  who  are  more 
interested  in  the  amount  of  money  they  can  make  out  of 
the  job  than  in  the  welfare  of  the  community.  Such  con- 
tractors, and  the  officers  of  government  who  knowingly 
employ  them,  are  enemies  to  the  community. 

The  streets  are  for  the  use  of  the  people.  No  one  has  a 
right  to  block  them  unnecessarily  to  the  inconvenience  or 
Blocking  danger  of  others.  There  are  ordinances  to  pre- 
the  streets  vent  Storekeepers  and  others  from  blocking  the 
sidewalks  with  boxes  or  otherwise.  These  ordinances  are 
often  violated,  making  the  way  of  the  pedestrian  both  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous,  besides  making  the  streets  unsightly. 
In  large  cities  the  sidewalks  and  streets  are  necessarily 
crowded,  and  a  slight  accident  may  block  traffic  completely 
for  a  time. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  the  streets  in  cities  for  the  laying 

of  sewer,  water,  and  gas  pipes,  the  stretching  of  telegraph, 

telephone,  and  electric-light  wires,  and  the  con- 
Franchises  ^         '  ^      _         ,  .        .       , 

struction  of  street  railways.    Franchises  for  these 

purposes  are  granted,  on  two  conditions  :  first,  definite  serv- 
ices must  be  performed  for  the  people ;  and,  second,  the 
natural  use  of  the  streets  by  vehicles  and  pedestrians  must 
not  be  interfered  with.  Here  again  we  often  find  the  rights 
of  the  people  disregarded,  both  by  the  companies  which  ob- 
tain the  franchises,  and  by  the  government  officials  who 
grant  them.  Sometimes  franchises  are  carelessly  drawn  up 
and  give  away  privileges  to  companies  without  safe-guard- 
ing the  rights  of  the  people.     Sometimes  the  officers  of 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         11/ 

government  dishonestly  and  unpatriotically  give  away  the 
people's  rights  for  private  gain. 


Copyright,  \i^T,hy  Underwood  &'  Underwood,  Xc-:v  York. 

Transportation  in  a  Large  City. 

Life  in  cities  has  been  almost  revolutionized  by  the  devel- 
opment of  rapid  transportation  by  electric  trolley  cars.     In 
some  of   the   largest  cities    there  are   elevated  jj^-jj 
railways,  upon  which  trains  are  driven  without  transit  in 
the    delays    necessary    in    surface    transporta-  "**^^ 
tion.     In    New    York    and    other   cities    there    is    also    a 
system    of     subway     transportation     under    the     streets. 


Il8  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  regular  steam  railways  run  trains  a  few  minutes 
apart  between  the  centers  of  all  large  cities  and  their 
suburbs.  In  a  single  year  the  surface,  elevated,  and  sub- 
way trains  in  the  city  of  New  York  carried  more  than 
860,000,000  passengers;  in  Boston,  270,000,000;  and  in 
Chicago  the  surface  and  elevated  roads  carried  nearly 
5  50,000,000. 

The  city  railways  are  owned  and  operated  by  private  cor- 
porations under  franchises.  It  has  been  proposed  that  cities 
G  emment  should  acquire  possession  of  their  transportation 
ownership  systcms  and  should  operate  them  themselves,  as 
ofr  ways  j^  done  in  many  European  cities.  It  is  argued 
that  the  service  could  then  be  made  just  as  good  as  the 
people  want  it,  and  the  fares  could  be  reduced  greatly. 
It  is  said,  in  reply  to  this,  that  if  city  governments  can- 
not wisely  and  honestly  control  the  giving  of  franchises, 
and  enforce  their  terms,  how  much  less  likely  would  the 
governments  be  to  manage  the  entire  business  wisely  and 
honestly. 

In  community  life  there  must  be  an  exchange  of  ideas 
as  well  as  a  means  of  transporting  goods  and  people.  The 
Communi-  manufacturer  must  know  what  kinds  of  goods 
cation  of  the  people  want  and  what  they  will  be  willing  to 
pay  for  them.  He  must  also  know  where  he 
can  get  his  materials  for  manufacture  most  advanta- 
geously. In  a  large  country  like  ours  the  people  in  sections 
far  removed  from  each  other,  like  New  England  and  Cali- 
fornia, would  be  likely  to  develop  very  great  differences 
in  manner  of  speech,  in  dress,  in  ways  of  thinking,  and  in 
forms  of  government,  if  they  were  not  in  constant  com- 
munication with  each  other.  The  exchange  of  ideas  is  kept 
up  partly  by  means  of  travel.  There  is  a  constant  min- 
gling of  the  people  of  different  sections.    We  have,  besides, 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         119 

our  postal  system,  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and  the 
newspaper.  When  an  important  event  ha[)pens,  the  news 
of  it  is  at  once  flashed  to  every  part  of  the  land  and  within 
a  few  hours,  at  most,  is  laid  at  our  doors  in  the  columns 
of  a  newspaper. 

The  Constitution  gives  Congress  power  to  create  post 
offices  and  post  roads,  and  the  post-office  system  has 
existed  from  the  beginning  under  the  complete  Postal 
control  of  the  national  government.  At  first  the  system 
mails  were  usually  carried  on  horseback,  sometimes  by 
boys,  or  by  old  men  who  "  whiled  away  the  hours  by  knit- 
ting woolen  mittens  and  stockings "  along  the  way.  At 
the  close  of  the  Revolution  letters  were  sent  from  New 
York  to  Boston  two  or  three  times  a  week.  It  sometimes 
required  five  weeks  for  a  letter  to  go  a  distance  now  passed 
over  in  a  single  afternoon.  Out  of  this  small  beginning 
has  developed  the  extensive  postal  system  which  we  enjoy 
to-day.  Formerly,  as  to-day  in  very  small  communities, 
people  went  to  the  post  office  for  their  mail ;  but  now  in 
all  cities  and  large  towns  it  is  delivered  at  their  doors. 
There  is  also  a  rural  free  delivery,  postmen  driving  daily 
from  farmhouse  to  farmhouse.  In  191 3  a  parcel  post  was 
established,  which  means  a  package  express  service  here- 
tofore performed  by  private  express  companies. 

So  great  is  the  service  performed  by  the  telegraph,  the 
trans-oceanic  cable,  and  the  telephone,  that  it  is  hard  to 
see  how  life  could  go  on  without  these  means  of  jQi^gTaph 
almost  instantaneous  communication  connecting  and 
business  offices  or  homes,  farmer  and  city  dweller,    ^  ^^ 
distant  cities,  and  the  nations  of  the  world.     The  first  tele- 
graph line  in  the  United  States  was  owned  and  operated 
as  a  part  of  the  government  postal  service,  as  is  now  the 
case  in  some  countries,  but  the  telegraph  and  telephone 


I20  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE    CITIZEN 

are  now  in  the  hands  of  private  corporations.  The  Post- 
master General  of  the  United  States,  in  his  report  for  191 3, 
expresses  his  conviction  that  the  Post-office  Department 
should  control  all  these  means  of  communication  and  his 
belief  that  this  will  ultimately  be  the  policy  of  the  United 
States  as  of  other  countries. 

We  must  not  close  this  chapter  without  reference  to 
the  wonderful  invention  of  radio-comnuinicatioii  —  wireless 
telegraphy — which  is  one  more  powerful  means  of  bind- 
ing the  whole  world  into  one  community  with  common 
interests.  We  prize  it  especially,  perhaps,  as  a  means  of 
saving  life  on  the  sea.  So  much  depends  upon  this  means 
■of  communication  that  our  government  has'passed  special 
laws  to  prevent  interference  with  important  messages. 
Every  one  who  operates  a  wireless  station  should  conscien- 
tiously observe  these  laws. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Look  up  the  difficulties  of  travel  and  transportation  in  our  country 
in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  their  effects  on  the  life 
lof  the  time. 

2.  Are  the  geographical  conditions  favorable  to  the  making  of  good 
Toads  in  your  community?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  country  roads 
in  your  neighborhood  during  the  winter?  What  effect  do  the  road  con- 
ditions have  on  the  life  of  the  farmer?     On  the  life  of  the  town  people? 

3.  Who  has  control  over  the  making  and  repairing  of  the  country 
roads  in  your  community?  How  is  the  expense  of  keeping  them  in  re- 
pair met?  Do  the  farmers  work  out  their  road  tax  ?  Are  experienced 
persons  employed  to  oversee  the  work  of  construction  and  repair? 

4.  Look  up  the  history  of  road  building  in  your  state.  Have  there 
been  any  state  roads  ?  If  so,  locate  them  on  the  map.  Is  your  state 
government  now  taking  any  steps  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  coun- 
try roads? 

5.  Make  a  report  on  the  history  and  influence  of  the  National  Road. 
Did  it  have  any  particular  influence  on  the  settlement  of  your  state? 

6.  Give  an  account  of  the  use  of  rivers  in  your  state  for  transporta- 
Ttion.    To  what  extent  are  they  used  now? 


TRANSPORTATION   AND   COMMUNICATION         12 1 

7.  Do  you  know  of  any  river  improvement  going  on  in  your  state? 
By  whom  is  it  being  made,  state  or  national  government? 

8.  Make  a  report  on  the  work  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 

9.  Make  a  report  on  the  building  and  influence  of  the  Erie 
Canal. 

ID.  Look  up  the  history  of  canal  building  in  your  state.  Have  there 
been  any  successful  canals  operated  there?  Are  any  of  them  still  in 
operation? 

11.  Report  on  the  purpose  and  history  of  the  Panama  Canal.  What 
arrangements  did  our  government  have  to  make  with  other  nations  in 
regard  to  it?  Of  what  advantage  will  it  be  to  the  world?  What  special 
advantages  will  the  United  States  derive  from  it? 

12.  Report  on  the  early  history  of  railroad  building  in  your 
state. 

13.  If  there  are  interurban  electric  lines  in  your  neighborhood,  re- 
port what  influence  they  have  had  on  the  life  of  the  farmers ;  on  the 
prosperity  of  the  cities. 

14.  How  does  your  city  government  manage  the  building  and  re- 
pairing of  the  streets?  If  you  wanted  the  street  on  which  you  live 
paved,  how  would  you  set  about  it?  How  would  the  expense  be 
met  ? 

1 5.  Are  the  ordinances  respecting  the  blocking  of  sidewalks  observed 
in  your  community  ? 

16.  If  you  have  a  street  railway  in  your  community,  tind  out  what 
the  terms  of  the  franchise  are  with  reference  to  the  use  of  the  streets. 
Also  with  reference  to  the  paving  of  the  streets  through  which  the 
tracks  run.  Are  the  people  getting  as  good  service  from  the  street 
railways  as  they  should  ?     If  not,  why  ? 

17.  Debate  the  question,  -'Street  railroads  should  be  owned  and 
operated  by  the  city /" 

18.  Report  on  rural  free  mail  delivery  in  your  neighborhood.  What 
influence  does  it  have  on  the  improvement  of  the  country  roads  ?  (See 
Report  of  Postmaster  General  for  1913.  pp.  32-33.) 

19.  Report  on  the  organization  of  a  large  newspaper  for  the  gather- 
ing anddistribution  of  information. 

20.  Report  on  the  laws  regulating  the  use  of  wireless  telegraph  by 
amateurs.  (Copies  of  the  regulations  may  be  obtained  from  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington.) 


122  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 

REFERENCES 

The  Office  of  Public  Roads,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.C.,  has  issued  a  series  of  circulars  on  the  public  roads  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  giving  the  mileage  of  improved  and  unimproved  roads,  road 
laws,  etc. 

Some  of  tlie  state  governments  have  issued  reports  on  the  public 
roads  of  these  states  ;  as  in  Indiana,  the  Report  of  the  State  Geologist 
for  1905  deals  with  the  Roads  and  Road  Materials  of  Indiana. 

Henderson,  "  The  Social  Spirit  of  America,"  chapter  VI,  "  Good  Roads  and 
Communication." 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXVII,  "  Transportation." 

Brj-ce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  last  edition,  vol.  II,  chapter  CIII, 
"  Railroads." 

McMaster,  "  History  of  the  American  People,"  I:  11-13;  40-54;  67-70;  II: 
553~557!  560-563;  III:  462-481.  These  references  are  good  for  the  conditions 
of  travel  and  communication  in  the  early  history  of  our  country.  Also  for  the 
National  Road,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Coast  Survey. 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  "  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"  chapter  XIV,  "  Trave\ 
Transportation,  and  Taverns." 

Earle,  Alice  M.  "  Stage-Coach  and  Tavern  Days." 

Sparks,  "The  Expansion  of  the  American  People,"  chapters  XII,  XX,  XXI, 
XXII,  XXIII,  XXX.  An  entertaining  account  of  the  development  of  means  ot 
transportation.  Chapter  XXII  deals  with  the  Cumberland  Road  and  the  Erie 
Canal. 

Wilcox,  "The  American  City,"  chapter  II,  "The  Street,"  and  chapter  III, 
"  The  Control  of  Public  Utilities." 

Fairlie,  "Municipal  Administration,"  chapter  XII,  291-307,  "Urban  Trans- 
portation."    Makes  a  comparison  between  European  and  American  systems. 

Report  of  the  Postmaster  General  of  the  United  States  (1913),  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington. 

"  Promotion  of  Commerce."  An  outline  of  the  service  maintained  by  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  and  other  bureaus  and  offices  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States.  Department  of  Commerce,  Division  of  Publica- 
tions, Washington  (1913). 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  (1913).  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington. 

Official  Handbook  of  the  Panama  Canal  (1913).  Published  by  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  Washington. 

In  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  iox  February,  1911,  there  is  an  article  on 
"  The  Panama  Canal,"  by  Col.  Geo.  W.  Goethals.  In  the  same  magazine  for 
February,  1914,  there  is  an  article  on  "  The  Panama  Canal,"  by  Lt.  Col.  W.  A.  Sibert, 
one  on  "  Battling  with  the  Panama  Slides,"  by  W.  J.  Showalter ;  and  one  on  "  The 
Probable  Effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  the  Commercial  Geography  of  the  World," 
by  O.  P.  Austin. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
WASTE   AND   SAVING 

Ix  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  saving  is  as  important 
as  production.  Waste  must  be  avoided.  There  is  usually 
Waste  ^  good  deal  of  waste  in  the  household.     There 

in  the  is  waste  in  clothing  through  lack  of  proper  care, 

through  unwise  purchasing  of  unsuitable  ma- 
terials, and  through  extravagance  in  the  purchase  of  un- 
necessary articles.  There  is  waste  in  fuel,  sometimes  by 
overheating  the  houses,  sometimes  by  improper  care  of  the 
furnaces  or  stoves.  One  of  the  greatest  wastes  is  in  the 
matter  of  food.  "  Scraps  "  are  thrown  away  that  a  skillful 
housekeeper  would  use.  Unnecessary  quantities  of  food 
are  bought  and  prepared.  Many  a  good  dish  is  spoiled 
in  the  cooking.  Another  waste  is  due  to  ignorance  of 
the  nourishing  values  of  different  articles  of  food.  The 
man  who  works  with  his  hands  in  the  open  air,  con- 
stantly exercising  his  muscles,  needs  a  different  kind  of 
nourishment  from  the  student  who  sits  at  his  desk  all  day. 
Those  who  are  fed  on  the  wrong  kinds  of  food,  or  on  food 
imj^roperly  prepared,  cannot  do  as  good  work  as  they 
otherwise  could.  Not  the  least  important  means  of  secur- 
ing good  citizenship,  as  shown  in  effective  work  in  the 
community,  is  a  better  management  of  the  kitchens  in  the 
homes  of  the  community. 

It  is  said  that  more  than  three  fourths  of  the  household 
expenditures  in  our  country  are  made  by  the  women.     It 

123 


124  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

is  a  highly  important  service  to  the  community  for  the  girls 
who  are  to  become  the  managers  of  the  households  to 
learn  the  lesson  of  saving.     In  the  pioneer  days  women 
every  girl  learned  at  home  the  details  of  house  are  the 

-'   °  ...       managers 

management.      In    modern    life,    especially    in  of  the 
cities,  it  is  not  always  so.     It  is  now  recognized  household 
that,  in  the  attempts  to  improve  the  conditions  of  life  in 
the  slums  of  a  city,  one  of  the  first  things  to  do  is  to  teach 
the  people  who  live  there  how  to  save  in  their  households, 
in  order  to  get  the  best  results  from  what  they  have. 

In  recent  years  the  school  has  been  assuming  some  of 
the  responsibility  for  the  education  of  the  girls  in  domestic 
science.  Courses  in  cooking  and  sewing  are  j^e  respon- 
offered  in  an  increasingly  large  number  of  pub-  sibiuty  of 

,        ,  TT    •  •^-  the  school 

he  and  private  schools.  Universities  are 
training  young  women  to  become  teachers  of  domestic 
science.  It  is  being  recognized,  as  it  should  be,  that  the 
skillful  management  of  a  household  is  as  useful  and  honor- 
able a  service  to  the  community  as  the  management  of  a 
business. 

The  successful  business  man  always  tries  to  avoid  waste. 
By  introducing  smoke  consumers,  or  by  employing  skillful 
stokers,  he  converts  the  smoke  of  his  furnaces  waste  in 
into  steam  power  instead  of  pouring  it  out  in  busmess 
clouds  over  the  community.  In  a  well-managed  sawmill 
not  only  is  the  body  of  the  logs  sawed  into  lumber,  but  the 
waste  from  this  process  is  made  into  tool  handles,  chair 
rounds,  and  other  small  articles.  The  pieces  of  wood  that 
are  too  small  for  manufacturing  purposes  may  be  sold  in 
cities  for  kindling.  Even  the  sawdust  is  put  to  various 
uses.  When  the  refining  of  petroleum  oil  was  first  begun, 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  waste  product.  From  this 
former  waste  there  are  now  produced  many  valuable  by- 


WASTE    AND    SAVING  12$ 

products,  such  as  paraffin,  vaseline,  and  dyestuffs.  The 
by-products  of  a  manufacturing  process  are  sometimes 
more  valuable  than  tlie  main  product. 

Another  kind  of  wastefulness  is  common  in  the  home, 
in  industry,  in  personal  and  public  affairs.  One's  kitchen 
may  be  so  poorly  arranged  that  many  unncces-  g  .  ^g 
sary  steps  are  taken  in  doing  the  daily  work  ;  manage- 
or,  it  may  not  be  the  fault  of  the  arrangement  ™^° 
but  of  lack  of  plan  in  doing  the  work.  Sometimes  we  see 
people  working  with  tools  that  are  dull  or  poorly  adapted 
to  the  task  in  hand,  when  a  little  thought  given  to  the 
matter,  or  a  little  time  spent  in  putting  the  tools  in  good 
condition,  would  save  time  and  effort  besides  securing 
better  results.  A  brick  mason  once  observed  that  many 
unnecessary  motions  were  made  in  laying  bricks.  By  de- 
vising a  new  kind  of  scaffolding  which  could  always  be 
kept  in  the  same  position  in  relation  to  the  top  of  the  wall, 
and  by  other  adaptations,  he  made  it  possible  for  a  man  to 
lay  two  or  three  times  as  many  bricks  as  before  with  no 
greater  effort. 

A  new  profession  has  recently  developed  out  of  such 
facts,  known  as  "  efficiency  engineering."  The  "  efficiency 
engineer"  makes  a  business  of  studying  industrial  plants 
or  business  offices  or  occupations  with  a  view  to  determin- 
ing how  to  get  the  largest  possible  results  with  the  least 
waste  of  time,  energy,  and  materials.  The  results  are  se- 
cured through  "  scientific  management."  While  in  a  large 
business  or  industrial  undertaking  it  may  be  necessary  to 
employ  a  specially  trained  efficiency  engineer,  the  principle 
of  scientific  management  may  be  employed  by  each  of  us  in 
our  daily  work. 

Saving  does  not  mean  hoarding.  He  who  hoards  is 
really  wasteful,  for  the  money  that  he  hoards  might  be  in- 


126  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

vested  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  produce  more  wealth. 

Saving  ^^  might  buy  machinery  with  it  for  manufac- 

isnot  turing  purposes;    he    might  build  houses  with 

oar  ing     ^  ^^   ^^    ^^^^^ .    j^^    might    buy    a   stock  of   goods 

with  it,  and  sell  them  at  profit ;  or  he  might  lend  the 
money  to  others  who  wish  the  use  of  it  and  receive  interest. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  to  save  by  investing  the 
surplus  of  his  earnings,  so  far  as  he  is  able  to  do  so.  In  the 
Saving  bv  ^^^^  place,  he  should  endeavor  to  put  it  beyond 
investment  a  possibility  that  he  shall  ever  be  a  burden  on 
uy  others  for  his  support,  or  for  the  support  of  his 
family,  in  time  of  sickness,  old  age,  or  lack  of  employment. 
In  the  second  place,  it  is  through  the  investment  of  sav- 
ings that  productive  industries  are  maintained,  and  the 
wealth  of  the  community  is  increased.  The  man  who 
saves  by  investment  supplies  the  community  with  factories, 
machinery,  railways,  and  other  forms  of  capital.  He  also 
becomes  an  employer  of  labor.  He  thus  contributes  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  community. 

A  postal  savings  system  was  established  by  the  United 
States  government  in  191 1.  At  the  end  of  two  and  one- 
Postal  sav-  half  years  there  were  $  33,818,870  on  deposit  in 
ings  banks  12,820  post  offices  that  had  been  designated  as 
depositories.  Practically  all  of  this  large  sum  is  made  up 
of  small  savings  that  had  been  hidden  away  by  wage- 
earners,  many  of  them  foreigners,  who  have  confidence  in 
the  government  but  not  in  private  savings  banks.  Many 
children  make  use  of  this  method  of  saving.  Savings 
stamps  and  savings  cards  may  be  bought  at  the  post  office 
banks  to  help  save  amounts  less  than  a  dollar.  When  the 
amount  reaches  one  dollar  it  may  be  deposited.  This 
postal  savings  system  is  a  benefit  to  the  individual,  by  af- 
fording safety  to  his  savings  and  paying  interest  on  them, 


WASTE   AND   SAVING  127 

and  also  to  the  community,  for  it  has  drawn  out  from  hid- 
ing places  this  large  sum  of  money,  which  is  thus  placed 
in  circulation  for  business  purposes. 

Another  means  of  saving  is  by  insurance.  A  person 
may  insure  his  property  against  loss  by  fire,  storm,  or  bur- 
glary (see  p.  74).     He  may  also  insure  his  family 

,  f  ,  u-  •      .    1  u       Insurance 

or  others  dependent  upon  him  agamst  loss  by 

reason  of  his  death  or  injury.  As  in  the  case  of  fire  in- 
surance, the  premiums  that  he  and  thousands  of  others 
pay  to  a  life  or  accident  insurance  company  constitute  a 
fund,  which  the  company  greatly  increases  by  investment, 
and  from  which  losses  are  paid  to  his  beneficiaries  (those 
who  benefit  by  his  insurance).  By  one  form  of  life  in- 
surance, the  endowment  plan,  the  insured  person  may  him- 
self receive  the  full  amount  of  his  policy  at  the  end  of  a 
ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  year  period,  if  he  lives  that  long. 
In  case  of  his  death  before  the  expiration  of  the  period, 
his  beneficiaries  receive  the  full  amount. 

Life  insurance  companies  have  a  peculiarly  sacred  obli- 
gation, for  they  pledge  themselves  to  protect  widows  and 
orphans  against  financial  loss.  Dishonesty  or  bad  man- 
agement on  their  part  is  therefore  especially  blameworthy, 
as  in  the  case  of  savings  banks,  where  thousands  of  poor 
people  deposit  their  small  savings.  Therefore  the  govern- 
ment subjects  these  corporations  to  careful  investigation, 
and  has  enacted  laws  for  the  protection  of  policy  holders 
against  misuse  of  their  insurance  investments. 

The  very  abundance  of  the  natural  resources  of  our 
country  has  led  us  as  a  people  to  be  wasteful  ^  ^ 

■'  .  ,  Conservation 

of  them.     Threatening  exhaustion  of    some  of  of  natural 

them  has   called    attention    to    national   spend-  ^^^^^^^ 

thrift  habits,  and  forced  our  government  to  take  steps  to 

"conserve  "  these  sources  of  wealth. 


128  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  rapid  occupation  of  all  available  farming  land  led 
to  the  reclamation  by  irrigation  of  vast  areas  of  supposedly 
waste  land  (see  page  51).  But  even  after  its  reclamation 
about  half  of  it  still  remains  idle.  One  reason  for  this  is 
Reclamation  that  much  of  the  irrigated  land  was  taken  up 
of  land  by  "speculators,"  men  who  buy  the    land  and 

hold  it  without  farming  it,  expecting  that  it  will  increase 
in  value  through  the  improvement  of  other  lands  in  the 
neighborhood  by  real  settlers.  While  the  speculators 
make  large  profits  through  the  efforts  of  others,  their  land 
lies  idle,  and  is  therefore  waste  so  far  as  national  benefit 
is  concerned.  Such  speculation  has  occurred  also  in 
mineral  and  other  lands.  In  his  annual  report  of  191 3, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  urges  that  the  government 
take  steps  to  prevent  the  acquisition  of  public  lands  except 
by  settlers  who  will  make  them  productive. 

When  there  were  still  available  large  areas  of  fertile 
land,  it  did  not  seem  necessary  to  force  each  acre  to  pro- 
duce all  that  it  was  capable  of  producing.  With  the 
increasing  needs  of  the  people,  it  has  become  necessary 
Conservation  ^o  conserve  the  resources  of  the  soil,  which 
of  the  soil  means  to  make  it  yield  all  that  it  can  at  the 
same  time  that  its  power  to  yield  in  the  future  is  not 
impaired.  In  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the 
national  government  there  is  a  Bureau  of  Soils,  which 
studies  the  soils  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  instructs 
farmers  how  to  preserve  or  increase  the  soil  fertility,  and 
how  to  get  the  largest  possible  returns.  The  national 
government  cooperates  in  such  work  with  the  state  gov- 
ernments, many  of  which  have  agricultural  departments 
.and  agricultural  schools  and  experiment  stations. 

Our  forest  resources  have  been  sadly  wasted  by  forest 
fires,  by  destructive  methods  of   cutting   timber,  and   in 


WASTE   AND   SAVING  129 

other  ways.  This  means  not  only  the  loss  of  the  timber, 
but  also  an  increased  danger  of  floods  with  their  con- 
sequent losses;  the  drying  up  of  the  sources  of 

^  V      o      I  Forestry 

streams,  thus  interfenng  with  navigation,  irri- 
gation, and  water  power ;  and  the  more  rapid  erosion  of 
the  soil  itself.  The  national  government  maintains  a 
Forest  Service,  whose  work  of  forest  conservation  is  saving 
enormous  wealth  to  the  country.  Many  of  the  state  gov- 
ernments are  doing  similar  work.  The  national  govern- 
ment has  set  aside  a  large  number  of  national  forests  (see 
page  5 1 ),  not  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  them  as  they 
stand,  but  to  make  them  yield  as  much  wealth  to  the 
nation  as  possible  for  all  time  to  come. 

Water  is  a  source  of  great  wealth,  and  a  cause  of 
much  destruction.  Millions  of  dollars'  worth  waste  from 
of  damage  is  caused  annually  by  floods.  The  floods 
work  of  the  government  in  building  levees  along  the 
banks  of  rivers  to  prevent  flood  destruction  has  already 
been  mentioned  (page  85).  One  purpose  of  the  national 
forests  on  the  watersheds  of  the  country  is  to  reduce  the 
danger  from  floods.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  as  in 
New  England,  reservoirs  are  constructed  to  receive  and 
hold  flood  waters  to  prevent  their  overflowing  the  country. 
This  "impounding"  of  flood  waters  in  reservoirs  is  not 
only  to  prevent  them  from  doing  harm  ;  it  is  also  to  force 
them  to  do  good.  The  floods  thus  imprisoned  may  be  let 
out  gradually  in  dry  seasons  to  irrigate  the  land,  as  in 
the  reclaimed  lands  of  the  West,  or  to  furnish  water  power. 

Niagara  Falls  and  other  sources  of  water  power  have 
been  harnessed  to  generate  electrical  power  by  which  cities 
are  lighted,  street  cars  propelled,  and  wheels  of  industry 
turned.  But  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  power  available 
in  this  country  is  used  at  present. 


I30 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


As  communities  grow  in  size,  it  becomes  increasingly 
difficult  and  costly  to  provide  every  one  with  an  adequate 
Water  con-  supply  of  pure  water.  The  water  supply  system 
servation  of  Philadelphia  has  cost  about  $62,000,000  and 
requires  one  and  a  quarter  million  dollars  a  year  for  its 
operation ;  but  so  rapidly  has  the  city  grown  that  the 
present  system  is  hardly  adequate  in  the  summer  months. 
New  York  City  is  expending  about  $176,000,000  on  its 
new  water  supply  from  the  Catskill  Mountains.  So  easy 
is  it  for  a  person  to  supply  his  needs  from  the  tap  in  the 
wall  or  the  hydrant  on  the  lawn,  that  he  forgets  that  water 
is  not  as  free  as  the  air  he  breathes.  It  even  seems  absurd 
to  many  people  to  speak  of  "  wasting  water."  But  it  is 
one  of  the  most  common  forms  of  waste.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  by  installing  water  meters  throughout 
Philadelphia,  a  saving  of  32,600,000  gallons  daily  could 
be  effected,  enough  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the  water 
system  for  five  years,  at  the  present  rate  of  the  city's 
growth.  Much  can  be  done  by  each  person  to  conserve 
the  community's  water  supply.  A  very  tiny  stream  run- 
ning constantly  may  mean  a  large  waste  in 

f  ^\         At  40  pounds  pressure,  in  24  hours, 

....  a  stream    running   through  this  size  of  opening    would 
mean  a  waste  of  170  gallons, 


70 


970 


3600 


through  this  opening  a  waste  of  970  gallons,  and 


....  through  this  opening  a  waste  of  3600  gallons. 


the  course  of  a  day.     The  accompanying  il- 
lustration, furnished  by  the  Superintendent  of 

Water  Works  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  will  make  this  matter 

plain. 


WASTE  AND   SAVING  131 

Land,  soil,  forests,   and  water    are    only  a  few    of  the 
natural  resources  that  have  been   wasted,   and  that    the 
government  is  seeking  to  conserve  for  perma-  conserva- 
nent  use.     At  the  end  of  this  chapter  will  be  tion  of  other 

r  If  ^      •    ^  ..•  i.        r    i-u-      resources 

found  references  to  interesting  accounts  01  this 

work  of  the  government,  including  that  of  the   Ikircau  of 

iMincs   in   conserving  our  mineral  resources;  that  of   the 

Bureau  of  Fisheries  in  conserving  the  life  of  our  streams, 

lakes,  and  coasts ;  that  of  the  Departments  of  the  Interior 

and   Agriculture  in   protecting  bird   life   largely  to   save 

crops  and  trees  from  the  ravages  of  insects.     In  some  of 

this  work  of  conservation  we  may  all  have  a  direct  part, 

as  in  protecting  birds  and  in  preventing  waste  of  water. 

And  in  all  cases  we  may  help  to  mold   public  opinion 

against  wastefulness  and  to  cultivate  habits  of  thrift. 

On  page  71  reference  was  made  to  the  enormous  waste 

by  fire  in  the  United  States,  much  of  which  is  preventable. 

Organizations  arc  growing  up  in  various  places 

Fire  waste 

which,  in  cooperation  with  government  authori- 
ties, are  seeking  to  impress  on  the  people  the  needlessness 
of  this  waste  and  how  they  can  help  to  prevent  it.     This 
is  a  work  in  which  children  can  do  much  to  help. 

Wastefulness  is  often  found  in  the  management  of  the 
community's  business  by  government.  It  is  seen  in  many 
forms.  Through  a  false  idea  of  economy  im-  Waste  in 
provements  that  would  result  in  real  economy  government 
are  not  made,  as  when  roads  or  streets  are  allowed  to  re- 
main unimproved,  thus  causing  an  unnecessary  expense 
in  transportation.  For  lack  of  funds  pavements  that  have 
been  built  at  great  expense  are  allowed  to  go  without  repair 
from  year  to  year  until  the  whole  work  has  to  be  done 
over  again  ;  or  the  equipment  of  a  fire  department  may 
be   allowed  to  deteriorate,   while  the  loss  from   fires   in- 


132  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE  CITIZEN 

creases.  In  Philadelphia  a  saving  of  ;^30,ooo  a  year  was 
effected  merely  by  a  simple  improvement  of  methods  of 
cleaning  the  city  hall.  In  Chicago  $200,000  a  year  was 
saved  in  the  time  of  city  employees  by  a  slight  change  in 
the-  method  by  which  they  received  their  salary  checks 
and  had  them  cashed. 

Wastefulness  in  government  may  sometimes  be  attributed 
to  the  incompetence  of  officials,  sometimes  to  their  dishon- 
Who  is  esty.     It  is  sometimes  due  to  too  little  sense  of 

for  an  responsibility  on  their  part  for  the  wise  expendi- 

economical  ^m-g  of  money  that  belongs  to  the  public;  for 
ment?  "the  public  "  means  to  them  nobody  in  particular. 

It  is  most  often  due,  however,  to  bad  management,  to 
ineffective  methods.  But  after  all,  wastefulness  in  the 
government  of  the  community  is  largely  the  fault  of  the 
citizens  themselves.  They  are  inclined  to  place  the  respon- 
sibility for  unwise  expenditures  and  other  forms  of  waste- 
fulness upon  the  officers  of  government,  unmindful  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  their  own  business  that  is  being  mismanaged. 
Each  citizen  owes  it  to  himself  and  to  the  comniunity  to  use 
every  means  at  his  command  to  secure  an  economical 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  his  community.  One  way 
of  doing  this  is  by  keeping  thoroughly  informed  about 
what  the  government  is  doing  and  how  it  does  it,  and  by 
insisting  that  full  information  be  provided  by  government 
itself,  A  person  is  always  stimulated  to  do  his  best  work 
when  he  knows  that  his  employers  are  interested  in  it  and 
understand  his  duties  and  his  problems.  One  of  the  best 
reasons  why  every  citizen  should  know  how  his  govern- 
ment is  organized  and  how  it  works,  is  for  the  effect  that 
this  knowledge  may  have,  not  upon  the  citizen  himself,  but 
upon  those  who  are  attending  to  the  citizen's  business  in 
government  positions. 


WASTE   AND   SAVING  133 


FOR  mVESTIGATION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  are  wasteful? 

2.  What  are  some  ways  of  preventing  waste  in  your  household? 

3.  Is  the  kitchen  in  your  iiome  so  arranged  as  to  secure  economy  of 
time  and  of  steps?     Can  you  suggest  ways  of  improving  it? 

^4.  By '' scientific  management"  can  you  find  a  way  of  preparing 
your  sciiool  work  better  and  in  shorter  time,  and  thus  save  time  for 
recreation  and  other  activities? 

5.  Investigate  some  factory  or  business  establishment  to  find  out 
how  waste  is  avoided. 

6.  Visit  a  gas  factory  and  find  out  what  by-products  of  value  result 
from  the  manufacture  of  gas. 

7.  What  other  industries  do  you  know  in  which  there  are  useful  by- 
products ? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  men  save  by  investment? 
Show  how  each  of  these  methods  of  investment  benefits  the  community. 

9.  Report  on  the  postal  savings  system  (see  references). 

10.  Report  on  barren  or  swamp  lands  in  your  locality  or  state  that 
have  been  or  might  be  reclaimed. 

11.  Report  on  forest  conservation  by  the  national  government.  By 
your  own  state  government. 

12.  What  are  the  farmers  in  your  locality  doing  to  conserve  the 
soil? 

13.  Report  on  the  conservation  of  bird  life.  How  does  this  result 
in  saving  for  the  farmers  ?  How  can  you  help  the  farmers  in  this 
matter? 

14.  Report  on  the  conservation  of  fish  and  game  by  the  national 
«5overnment. 

15.  Report  instances  of  economies  effected  in  city  government  by  the 
use  of  scientific  management  (see  references  to  Bureaus  of  Municipal 
Research). 

REFERENCES 

"  The  Problem  of  Waste,"  Independent,  55 :  1324. 

"  A  Century  of  Waste,"  Independent,  52 :  2400. 

"  The  Utilization  of  Wastes,"  Engineering  Magazine,  26:  118. 

"'  Reclaiming  Waste,"  Current  Literature,  30:  743. 

"  Conserving  Waste  Products,"  World's  Work,  4 :  2352. 

"  The  Utilization  of  Waste,"  Forum,  32:  74. 

"  The  Wastes  of  a  Great  City,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  34:  387. 

Goodrici,,  "  The  Economic  Disposal  of  a  Town's  Refuse." 


134  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

"  Changing  Garbage  Disposal  from  an  Expense  to  a  Revenue,"  American  City, 
•9 :  244-5  (September,  1913) . 

"  Food  from  Waste  Products,"  Literary  Digest,  46 :  15  (January  4,  1913) . 

"  Power  from  Waste  Fuel,"  Scientific  American  Supplement,  75 :  267  (April  26, 

1913)- 

"  Wealth  from  Wasted  Gas,"  Technical  World,  19:  37  (March,  1913). 

On  Scientific  Management  see  "Readers''  Guide  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture."    A  few  references  are  : 

"  Story  of  Emerson,  High-Priest  of  the  New  Science  of  Efficiency,"  Revieiv  of 
Reviews,  48:305-315  (September,  1913). 

"  Putting  Woman  and  Her  Home  on  a  Business  Basis,"  Review  of  Reviews 
(February,  19 14). 

"Scientific  Management  in  the  Home,"  Outlook,  April  13,  1912,  and  Sept.  14, 
1912;   Current  Opinion,  A\ir\\,  1914. 

"  Efficiency  Movement,"  Harper's  Weekly,  Nov.  2,  1912. 

"  Work  done  by  the  Economy  and  Efficiency  Commission  at  Washington," 
System,  April,  1913. 

On  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources,  see  "  Readers'  Guide." 
The  following  government   publications  are  valuable    (Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C.)  : 

i2th  Annual  Report  of  the  Reclamation  Service  (1913). 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (1913),  pp.  1-24;  55-69;  70-71 ;  93-94. 

Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  (1913),  pp.  10-13;   ^9- 

United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries  :  Its  Organization,  Operations,  and  Achieve- 
ments (1910). 

Fish-Cultural  Practices  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries  (1910). 

"  A  Primer  of  Forestry,"  by  Gifford  Pinchot,  Farmers'  Bulletin  issued  by  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (1911). 

"  Status  of  Forestry  in  the  United  States,"  by  Treadwell  Cleveland,  Forestry 
Bulletin  (1909). 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (1913). 

Report  of  the  Third  Assistant  Postmaster  General  (1913),  pp.  27-40,  on  Postal 
Savings. 

The  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  261  Broadway,  New  York  City,  and  the 
similar  Bureaus  of  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  and  other  cities,  publish  literature 
illustrating  vividly  waste  and  economies  in  city  governments. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS  DESIRE  FOR  KNOWLEDGE 

In  1607  the  first  permanent  English  colony  was  founded 
in  Virginia.  Sixty-four  years  after  its  founding  Governor 
Berkeley  reported  to  the  king  on  the  condition  of  q^^^^^^j. 
the  colony,  and  among  other  things  he  said,  "  I  Berkeley  on 
thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor  printing,  *  "nation 
and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have,  these  hundred  years."  A 
statement  like  this  from  one  in  authority  seems  strange  to 
us  now,  when  one  of  our  chief  causes  of  pride  is  our  system 
of  free  schools  and  our  busy  printing  presses.  It  is  a  good 
example  of  the  belief  of  despotic  rulers  that  much  knowl- 
edge on  the  part  of  the  people  is  dangerous.  It  is  true 
that  a  despotic  government  cannot  exist  in  a  nation  where 
the  mass  of  the  people  are  educated.  What  Governor  Berke- 
ley wanted  to  see  was  a  colony  of  loyal  subjects  of  the  king, 
contented  because  ignorant  of  their  rights  and  powers,  and 
without  ambition  to  extend  their  liberties  by  revolting  against 
the  government  of  the  king  and  his  officers. 

Fortunately  for  the  growth  of  a  free  and  self-governing 
people,    Governor    Berkeley's   ideas   were  not  to    prevail. 
The  people  of  Virginia  were  eager  enough   for  schools, 
though  geographical  conditions  hindered  their  xheNew 
development.     Within   a   few   years   from    the   England 
founding  of  Virginia,  another  group  of  colonists 
founded  Massachusetts.    Here  a  law  was  passed  providing 

»35 


136  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

that  in  every  town  of  fifty  householders  an  elementary 
school  was  to  be  established,  and  in  every  town  of  one 
hundred  householders,  a  grammar  school.  New  England 
grew  under  a  system  of  free  schools,  free  discussion,  and 
a  free  press,  and  because  of  these  things,  one  hundred 
years  after  Berkeley's  time  became  a  center  of  rebellion 
against  English  oppression. 

We  must  look  first  to  the  family  as  the  most  important 
arrangement  for  the  education  of  the  citizen.  If  education 
_.j^  ,  were  left  entirely  to  the  family,  however,  it  would 

ilyand  be   inadequately   and   unequally  provided.      A 

e  ucation  i^j-gg  proportion  of  the  citizens  of  America  are 
foreigners.  They  and  their  children  would  make  little 
headway  ii;  acquiring  the  knowledge  that  makes  them  in- 
telligent citizens  if  their  education  were  left  for  their  families 
to  accomplish.  The  children  of  wealthy  families  might  be 
highly  educated  by  means  of  books  and  travel,  and  by  the 
emplovment  of  private  teachers  at  home;  while  the  children 
of  wage  earners  would  have  to  get  along  with  very  little 
education.  It  is  not  a  high  degree  of  education  on  the  part 
of  a  few  that  makes  a  republic  like  ours  great.  It  is  rather 
a  fairly  generous  amount  of  knowledge  permeating  all  ranks 
and  classes.  Since  the  community  is  to  be  the  gainer  by 
it,  the  community  must  afford  a  means  of  education  that 
shall  be  within  the  reach  of  all. 

As  was  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  Massa- 
chusetts at  an  early  time  recognized  the  importance  of  a 
Education  a  generally  educated  people  by  establishing  a  sys- 
fundamen--  tgni  of  public  schools.  Connecticut  made  a 
ou/govern-  similar  provision  soon  afterward.  Other  colonies 
ment  and  sections  of  the  country  were  slower  about 

providing  for  the  general  education  of  the  people, 
but  in  the  course  of  time  the  Massachusetts    way    has 


EDUCATION 


137 


become  characteristic  of  the  American  community. 
(One  of  the  foundation  ideas  of  our  free  country  is  that 
there  shall  be  the  greatest  possible  freedom  of  thought  and 
the  most  widespread  infomiation  among  the  people.  After 
the  Revolutionary  War,  when  the  Ordinance  of  1787  was  en- 
acted by  Congress  for  the  government  of  the  Western  lands, 
it  provided  that  "  religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being 
necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind, schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  be  forever 
encouraged."  When  new  states  were  created  out  of  this 
Western  land,  it  was  provided  that  each  should  reserve  one 
section  of  every  township  for  school  purposes.  States  ad- 
mitted after  1848  were  to  reserve  two  sections  of  each  town- 
ship. Thus  began  the  public  school  system  in  the  great 
West.  In  the  law  of  1906,  providing  for  the  admission 
of  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma  as  the  state  of  Okla- 
homa, it  was  provided  that  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of 
all  public  lands  should  be  used  for  school  purposes. 

The  public  schools  of  the  United  States  are  one  of  the 
largest  items  of  expense  to  the  government.     In   1911-12 
the  states  expended  on  their  public  elementary 
and  high  schools  $482,886,793.     This  amounts   cosrof  ^ 
to  about  $26  a  year  for  each  child  enrolled.    Why  education 
should  the  community  expend  so  much  for  the  *^  ^"^ 
education  of  its  young  people  ^     Do  they  receive  this  edu- 
cation freely  from  the  community  for  their  own  advantage 
alone .''     Community  life  is  never  one-sided.     The  child  is 
educated  by  the  community  not  that  he  may  get  more  out  of 
life  (although  it  is  true  that  he  may),  but  that  he  may  be 
able  to  give  more  to  the  well-being  of  the  community.     Our 
nation  is  annually  investing  millions  of  dollars  in  its  young 
people,  expecting  to  get  its  returns  in  greatly  increased 
efficiency  in  the  serv^ices  rendered  to  it  by  its  citizens. 


138 


THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 


Training  for  citizenship  is  accomplished  by  the  school 
chiefly  in  two  ways : 

I.  Through  a  course  of  instruction  that  will  unfold  to 
the  pupil  his  various  relations  to  life,  and  that  will  develop 
his  powers  of  clear  thinking  and  right  action. 
We  usually  think  of  civics  and  history  as  the 
two  subjects  intended  to  train  for  citizenship, 
but  every  subject  in  the  course  of  study  should 
contribute  to  the  same  end.  Language,  literature,  mathe- 
matics, science,   manual  arts,  and  vocational  training,  are 


i 


How  the 
schools 
train  for 
citizenship 


The  William  Clark  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
all  intended  to  broaden  the  view  of  the  individual,  to  de- 
velop an  all-round  manhood  and  womanhood,  to  cultivate 
the  different  desires  and  powers  in  such  a  way  as  to  fit  the 
individual  for  life  in  the  community. 

2.  The  second  way  in  which  the  school  should  train  for 
citizenship  is  in  the  life  of  the  school  itself.  The  school 
is  a  community  and  is  also  a  part  of  the  larger  community 
about  it.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  school  is  merely 
a  place  to  prepare  for  life.  It  is  life.  School  children  are 
doing  just  what  the  community  expects  them  to  be  doing 
during  their  time  of  life.  By  so  doing  they  are  contrib- 
uting to  the  welfare  of  the  community  as  well  as  receiving 
a  benefit  from  it. 


EDUCATION  139 

People  learn  to  do  things  by  practice.     All  the  principles 
of  community  life  found  in  the  world  outside  of  the  school 
are  found   also    within    the  school.     Here  are  The  princi- 
2:rouped  toerether  a  number  of  people  with  dif-  p'^^  °^  '^°™" 

fy         t^  o  II  munity  life 

fering  desires  and  motives,  but  all  posscssnig  found  in 
certain  common  interests.  Here  are  probably  '^^  school 
represented  several  different  nationalities  going  through 
the  process  of  being  molded  into  Americans  by  common 
instruction  and  by  association  with  each  other.  Here  are 
children  from  all  classes  in  the  community,  all  on  an 
exactly  equal  footing  before  the  laws  of  the  school,  and 
with  exactly  equal  opportunities  of  showing  their  worth 
and  winning  advancement  by  their  own  efforts.  This  is 
the  real  idea  of  democracy  that  we  are  trying  to  realize  in 
our  national  and  local  communities.  If  we  ever  realize  it 
perfectly,  it  will  be  largely  through  the  influence  of  the 
public  schools. 

In  the  school  is  found  the  necessity  for  industry  and 
productive  work ;  for  a  division  of  tasks  and  united  action, 
under  the  direction  of  teachers,  for  the  common  good. 
Here  is  seen  the  necessity  for  organization  and  govern- 
ment in  order  that  the  greatest  good  for  the  greatest 
number  may  be  secured.  Here  more  or  less  responsi- 
bility rests  upon  each  member  for  the  welfare  of  all. 
Failure  or  wrongdoing  on  the  part  of  one  not  only  brings 
disaster  to  himself,  but  tends  to  disturb  the  harmony  and 
well-being  of  all.  Certain  phases  of  school  life  tend  to  de- 
velop particular  qualities  of  good  citizenship  ;  in  athletics 
courage,  decisiveness  in  action,  and  the  spirit  of  square 
dealing  are  emphasized.  And  so  in  the  life  of  the  school 
habits  are  formed  by  practice  that  will  work  good  or  ill  by 
being  perpetuated  in  the  life  of  the  larger  community  out- 
side of  the  school. 


I40 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


In  order  to  give  pupils  practice  in  community  govern- 
ment, many  schools  are  organized  somewhat  on  the  plan 
Pupil  par-  of  a  City  or  state,  with  corresponding  officers, 
schooi^^^"^  such  as  a  mayor,  councilmen,  and  judges.  The 
government  "  school  city"  plan  of  pupil  self-government  is 
widely  known.  In  other  cases  a  large  degree  of  pupil 
participation  in  the  management  of  the  school  is  secured 


The  Work-shop  of  a  Special  School  for  Boys. 

without  any  special  organization  like  that  of  the  school 
city.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  desirability  of  the  various 
self-government  plans.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  no  ma- 
chinery of  self-government  can  be  successful  without  a 
real  community  spirit  among  both  pupils  and  teachers. 
Furthermore,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  school 
is  not  a  city  or  a  state,  but  a  school  community,  differing  in 
many  particulars  from  the  former.  However  valuable  it 
may  be,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  to  adopt  the  form  of 


EDUCATION  141 

government  found  in  the  community  outside  of  the  school, 
the  really  important  thing  is  to  form  habits  of  good  private 
citizenship  in  the  school  community,  under  the  natural 
conditions  found  in  school  life. 

Education  is  not  only  a  privilege  ;  it  is  a  duty,  because 
every  citizen  owes  it  to  his  community  to  equip  himself  to 
render  the  best  citizenship  possible.  In  most  Education 
of  the  states  there  are  laws  which  require  every  *  *^"'y 
child  to  attend  school  until  a  certain  age  (usually  fourteen, 
fifteen,  or  sixteen),  and  parents  are  held  responsible  for  the 
attendance  of  their  children.  A  great  many  pupils,  how- 
ever, drop  out  at  the  end  of  each  grade  for  various  reasons, 
so  that  a  large  proportion  of  those  who  enter  fail  to  com- 
plete the  entire  course  of  the  elementary  school.  The 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  estimates  that  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  children  who  enter  the  first  grade 
of  the  elementary  school  reach  the  high  school,  and  of 
these  only  about  forty  per  cent  graduate. 

What  is  the  cause  of  this  loss  in  school  attendance  ?  It 
is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  backward  pupils,  those  who 
repeatedly  fail  of  promotion,  and  reach  the  age  -^j^  j^, 
when  they  may  legally  leave  school  before  they  children 
complete  the  course,  dislike  to  remain  in  the  leave  school? 
lower  grades  with  children  much  younger  than  themselves. 
It  used  to  be  thought  that  many  of  those  who  left  did  so 
because  they  "  had  to  work  "  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of  their  families.  Investigations  have  shown,  however, 
that  it  is  not  so  often  a  real  necessity  of  going  to  work, 
as  it  is  a  failure  on  the  part  of  children  and  their  parents 
to  see  why  remaining  in  school  is  of  any  great  advantage 
after  the  child  is  old  enough  to  "  get  a  job." 

These  facts  have  led  educators    and  others    to    study 
seriously  the  question  whether  the  schools  are  doing  all 


142  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

that  they  should  for  their  pupils.  Surely,  if  parents  are 
required  to  keep  their  children  in  school  until  fourteen  or 
Adjusting  sixteen  years  of  age,  it  ought  to  be  made  plain 
schools  to  that  it  is  worth  while.  It  ought  to  be  made  so 
pupi  s  nee  s  pj^j^-^   j-j^^^   ^    ^^y   qj.  gjj.j  would   be  eager  to 

remain  until  the  course  is  completed,  even  if  it  required 
a  longer  time  than  that  fixed  by  law.  Study  of  this 
question  is  leading  to  some  important  changes  in  school 
methods.  It  is  leading  to  greater  attention  to  the  needs 
and  capacities  of  the  individual  pupil.  Pupils  who  have 
particular  difficulties  are  given  particular  attention,  and 
are  not  allowed  to  fall  behind  or  drop  out  simply  because 
others  in  the  class  have  less  difficulty.  In  some  cases 
there  are  special  classes  or  special  schools  for  pupils  who 
do  not  get  on  well  in  the  regular  grades  or  who  have 
special  interests.  In  such  schools  manual  or  vocational 
training  usually  has  a  large  place.  But  most  important  of 
all  is  the  attempt  that  is  being  made  by  school  authorities 
to  adjust  the  entire  course  of  study  and  the  methods  of 
teaching  more  closely  to  the  real  needs  and  interests  of 
the  pupils,  and  to  make  it  evident  to  every  boy  and  girl 
that  it  is  to  their  interest  to  remain  in  school  as  long  as 
possible. 

While    the  average  cost  of  education  throughout  the 

United  States  is  about  $26  for  each  pupil  enrolled,  the 

cost  of  high  schools  is  more  than  ^50  for  every 

The  respon- 

sibiiity  of  pupil  enrolled  in  them.  This  higher  education 
the  high  of  a  few  by  the  community  demands  in  return 
school  pupil  •        ^      .1  •.  T-1 

greater  service  to  the  community.  The  com- 
munity has  a  right  to  expect  more  from  an  educated  man 
than  from  an  uneducated  one ;  more  from  a  high  school 
graduate  than  from  one  who  has  not  attended  high  school. 
A  liberal  education  is  not  intended  to  relieve  a  person 


EDUCATION  143 

from  hard  work,  but  to  fit  him  for  more  and  better  work 
than  he  could  do  otherwise. 

The  duty  of  education  falls  on  the  state,  and  not  on  the 
national    government.     The    state,  in    turn,    has    left    the 
matter  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  local   com-  Education 
munities.     For  this  reason  we  find  a  good  deal  in  the  hands 

r  .    ,      .      ^1  ...  1  1.    of  State  and 

of  variety  in  the  organization  and  management  ^^^^^ 
of  schools.     Usually,  in  rural  communities,  the  govern- 
township    or    county    is    divided    into    school 
districts.     If  the  district  is  small,  it  has  but  one  school. 
Sometimes  the  township,  or  even  the  county,  constitutes 
a   single   district,    and    then   there   are   probably    several 
schools   under    a    single    management.     In    some    cases 
the  school  business  is  transacted  directly  by  the  voters  of 
the  district,  who  assemble  at  stated  times  for  the  purpose. 
Usually  it   is  placed  in  the  hands  of   one  or  more  com- 
mitteemen or  trustees,  who  are  elected  by  the  people.     In 
most  cases  all  the  schools  of  a  county  are  united  under  the 
management  of  a  board,  which  sometimes  con-  Township 
sists    of   the    .several   township    trustees.      The  ^^nage"*^ 
board  of  trustees  looks  after  the  school  build-  ment 
ings,  employs  teachers,  and  often  selects  the  text-books  to 
be  used.     In  order  to  secure  uniformity  and  excellence  in 
all  the  schools  of  the  county  there  is  usually  a  county 
superintendent,  appointed  by  the  board  or  elected  by  the 
people,  whose  business  it  is  to  supervise  the  actual  work 
of  the  schools. 

Rural  schools  are  often  poorly  organized.  The  terms 
are  too  short.  Pupils  of  all  ages  and  all  stages  of  advance- 
ment are  grouped  together  in  one  room,  often  in  the  same 
classes,  and  taught  by  the  same  teacher.  This  defect 
has  in  some  places  been  partly  overcome  by  consolidating 
the  schools  of  the  township  in  one  centrally  located  build- 


144 


THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 


ing,  where  the  pupils  can  be  graded,  and  where  several 
teachers  can  be  employed  under  the  supervision  of  a  prin. 
cipal.  A  single  township  high  school  is  often 
secured  by  this  method  of  consolidation,  al- 
though the  separate  districts  could  not  support 
one.  The  difficulty  in  the  way  of  consolidation 
has  been  the  distance  the  pupils  have  to  travel 
from  the  remote  parts  of  the  township.  This  difficulty 
has  been  met  in  some  states  by  providing  means  of  con- 
veyance at  public  expense. 


The  organ- 
ization and 
manage- 
ment of 
country 
schools 


City  schools 


A  kiRAi-  lJi:,iKie;i'  School. 

In  cities  the  organization  of  schools  can  be  more  per- 
fectly effected.  The  large  number  of  children  makes  it 
possible  to  grade  them  from  the  primary  classes 
up  to  the  high  school.  The  compactness  of  the 
population  makes  it  easier  to  supervise  the  work  of  all  the 
schools  alike  and  to  secure  unity  throughout  the  school 
system.  Better  buildings,  better  equipment,  and  better 
teachers  can  be  afforded.  The  schools  are  under  the 
management  of  a  board,  the  members  of  which  are  some- 
times elected  by  the  people  and  sometimes  appointed,  and 
a  superintendent,  who  is  usually  elected  by  the  board. 


EDUCATION 


145 


City  school  boards  are  usually  given  wide  powers  in 
school  matters,  and  act  more  or  less  independently  of  the 
other  branches  of  the  government,  in  order  to  secure  free- 
dom from  political  influence. 

Conditions  of  life  in  cities  differ  so  much  from  condi- 
tions in  the  country  that  the  state  allows  cities  great  lib- 


A  i^.<.>.^wi.ii..M  Kii  Rural  School  in  Inllana. 

Observe  the  large  number  of  children  in  attendance,  and  the  wagons  by  which 
they  are  carried  to  and  from  school. 

erty  in   organizing  and   managing   their   school   systems. 
The  schools  of  the  smaller  towns  and  rural  districts  are 
usually  controlled  in  their  general  methods  by  a  g^^^^ 
central  state  authority.     There  is  a  state  board  control  of 
of  education,  and  often  a  state  superintendent. 
The  state  superintendent  is  chosen   sometimes    by  elec- 
tion,   sometimes    by   appointment.       In    some    states   the 
text-books  used  are  prescribed  for  the  whole  state  by  the 


146  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

•State  board  of  education.  In  some  cases  they  are  fur^ 
nished  free  to  the  pupils  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

A  number  of  the  states  provide  state  universities  for  the 
higher  education  of  their  young  men  and  women.  These 
State  universities  afford  not   only  a  broad  collegiate 

universities  education  that  will  better  fit  any  one  for  life  in 
the  community,  but  they  also  offer  special  training  for  the 
law,  for  medicine,  for  engineering,  and  for  other  profes- 
sions. Attendance  at  the  state  universities  is  usually  free 
to  citizens  of  the  state ;  but  so  excellent  are  these  institu- 
tions that  they  generally  attract  students  from  other  states, 
who  are  required  to  pay  tuition. 

While  education  is  thus  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  state, 
the  national  government  is  not  wholly  inactive  in  the  mat- 
Educational  ter.  We  have  seen  how  it  gave  a  start  to  the 
national  ^  educational  work  of  the  states  by  the  donation 
^government  of  tracts  of  land.  In  addition  to  this  it  has 
established  a  Bureau  of  Education,  at  the  head  of  which  is 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education.  His  duties 
are  chiefly  to  collect  information  on  educational  matters, 
to  publish  this  information  in  reports  and  bulletins,  and  to 
exercise  an  influence  on  educational  movements  through- 
out the  country.  The  national  government  maintains  mili- 
tary and  naval  schools,  schools  for  the  Indians,  and  schools 
for  the  city  of  Washington. 

We  have  given  our  attention  to  the  public  school  system 
as  the  chief  means  of  education  directly  controlled  by 
oth  government.     But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 

educational  this  is  all  the  community  does  for  this  purpose, 
institutions  jj^gj-g  ^j-g  thousands  of  private  schools  scattered 
over  the  country,  especially  in  the  cities.  There  are  paro- 
chial schools  ;  that  is,  schools  managed  by  certain  churches, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Roman  CathoHc  church.     There  are 


EDUCATION 


147 


many  colleges  which  are  self-supporting,  or  derive  their 
support  from  private  funds.  There  are  schools  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the  blind,  supported  by  the  state. 
There  are  thousands  of  libraries  all  over  the  country,  many 
of  which  are  public  libraries  for  the  free  use  of  the  citizens. 
These  are  a  valuable  ally  of  the  public  schools,  and  are 
sometimes  managed  by  the  school  board  in  cities.     Many 


High  School,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

of  the  States  have  state  libraries,  and  at  Washington 
there  is  the  great  Congressional  library,  a  national  in- 
stitution. 

In  the  colonial  days  of  New  England  the  town  meeting 
was  one  of  the  greatest  educational  forces.     Here  the  peo- 
ple gathered  to  discuss  matters  of  common  in-  Freedom  of 
terest.     Every  citizen  was  educated  on  matters  speech,  of 

■'  .  ,  J    •    r  *^^  press, 

of  public  importance.     This  widespread  intor-  and  of 
mation  is  important  in  a  republic  like  ours.     The  assemblage 
love  of  meeting  together  to  discuss  public  questions,  or  to 
hear   them   discussed    by  well-informed    persons,   is  very 


148  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Striking  in  America.  We  have  only  to  compare  ourselves 
with  some  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  like  Russia,  where 
men  may  be  sent  into  exile  for  expressing  their  thoughts 
too  freely,  where  public  meetings  are  largely  forbidden, 
and  where  no  news  may  be  printed  in  the  newspapers 
until  it  has  been  examined  by  government  officials,  to  be 
thankful  that  our  Constitution  provides  that  "  Congress 
shall  make  no  law  .  .  .  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press,  or  the  right  of  the  people  freely  to  assem- 
ble" (Amendment  I). 

The  town  meeting  has  almost  disappeared.  But  in  its 
place  many  other  means  for  the  discussion  of  public  ques- 
tions have  arisen.  In  this  connection  we  again  come  back 
to  the  public  school  house.    The  people  are  just  beginning 

.     ,     to    reaUze    that    their    school    buildings,    which 
The  school  °    . 

a  civic  have   generally    stood   idle    except    durmg   the 

center  hours  when  school  is  in  session,  might  have  a 

much  wider  use,  and  afford  an  excellent  place  for  neigh- 
borhood meetings.  In  many  localities,  therefore,  in  both 
city  and  rural  communities,  the  school  houses  have  be- 
come civic  or  social  centers  of  great  influence  in  the 
education  of  the  people  through  neighborhood  discussion 
of  public  questions.  It  is  the  town  meeting  idea  adapted 
to  modern  conditions.  "  It  is  in  this  idea  of  the  school  as 
a  social  center  that  the  whole  modern  evolution  in  educa- 
tion finds  its  completion.  The  school  building  becomes 
not  merely  a  place  for  educating  the  young,  it  is  the  place 
where  the  whole  community  educates  itself,  adults  as  well 
as  children." 


EDUCATION  149 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Find  what  you  can  about  the  school  life  of  the  child  in  colonial 
New  England  ;  in  colonial  Virginia. 

2.  Find  what  you  can  about  the  first  schools  in  your  own  com- 
munity. How  did  they  differ  from  the  schools  of  to-day?  How  long 
was  the  school  term  ?  Did  all  children  attend  ?  Were  they  private 
schools,  or  public.^  Where  did  they  get  teachers?  How  well  were  the 
teachers  paid? 

3.  What  does  the  family  do  for  the  education  of  the  children  that 
the  school  cannot  do?  What  does  the  school  do  that  the  family 
cannot? 

4.  What  does  your  state  constitution  provide  with  regard  to 
education? 

5.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  schools  in  your  township  and 
county. 

6.  If  the  schools  in  your  community  are  graded,  when  and  why  did 
the  grading  take  place?  Show  how  the  graded  system  is  better  than 
the  ungraded  system.       , 

7.  Are  the  country  schools  consolidated  in  any  part  of  your  state? 
If  so.  how  does  the  system  work?  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of 
consolidating  small  country  schools  ? 

8.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  describe  in  detail  the  organization  of  the 
city  schools.  Describe  the  board  of  education,  number  of  members, 
term  of  office,  powers,  etc. 

9.  What  are  the  qualifications  prescribed  for  teachers  in  your  com- 
munity?    How  are  the  teachers  selected? 

10.  Describe  the  work  of  the  state  board  of  education  and  that  of 
the  state  superintendent  of  education  in  your  state. 

11.  How  are  the  school  books  selected  in  your  state?  In  your 
city?  Are  they  free  to  the  children?  What  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages result  from  free  school  books  ? 

12.  What  do  the  public  schools  cost  your  city  each  year  ?  Your 
county?    Your  state? 

13.  Compare  the  school  community  of  which  you  are  a  member  with 
the  comrnunity  outside  of  the  school,  as  suggested  on  page  139  of  this 
chapter. 

14.  How  does  the  government  of  your  school  differ  from  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  city  or  town  in  which  you  live?  What  is  the  reason 
for  this  difference?  Would  it  be  wise  to  make  the  government  of  the 
school  more  like  that  of  the  city?  Give  your  reasons.  Look  up  plans 
of  pupil  self-government  and  report  your  opinion  of  them  (see  refer- 
ences below). 


150  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

15.  What  are  the  compulsory  education  laws  of  your  state?  How 
are  truants  looked  after  in  your  community? 

16.  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  the  high  school  should  be 
maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  community,  in  spite  of  the  small 
proportional  attendance  and  the  large  proportional  cost? 

17.  Make  a  list  of  the  educational  agencies  in  your  community  out- 
side of  the  public  school. 

18.  See  the  reports  of  your  city  superintendent  of  schools  and  report 
on  improvements  in  your  school  system  during  the  past  few  years. 
What  recommendations  for  future  improvement  does  he  make? 

19.  Report  on  the  present  or  possible  use  of  schoolhouses  in  your 
community  outside  of  school  hours. 

20.  What  means  of  discussion  take  the  place  of  the  town  meeting  in 
your  community? 

21.  What  improvements  are  being  made  in  rural  schools  to  adapt 
them  to  the  needs  of  rural  communities? 


REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXVIII,  "  Education." 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"'  chapter  XLVI. 

Dewey,  John,  '-The  School  and  Society." 

Henderson,  C.  R.,  "The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XII, 
■'^  The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System." 

Earle,  Alice  M.,  "Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days,"  chapters  III-VI. 

King,  Irving,  "Social  Aspects  of  Education  "  (1913).  "  A  book  of 
sources  and  original  discussions  with  annotated  bibliographies."  This 
book  contains  chapters  on  various  topics  mentioned  in  the  text,  and 
•will  be  found  useful  because  of  the  reproduction  of  discussions  by  au- 
thorities on  the  various  subjects  and  for  the  bibliographies.  It  con- 
tains chapters  on : 

"  The  Social  Relations  of  Home  and  School  "  (ch.  IV). 

"  The  School  as  a  Center  of  Social  Life  in  the  Community  "  (ch.  V). 

"The  Social  Need  for  Continuing  the  Education  of  the  Adult"  (ch.  VI). 

"Industrial  and  Vocational  Education  "  (ch.  IX). 

■"  Pupil  Self-Government  "  (ch.  XVI). 

Perry,  C,  "Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant"  (1910). 

Welling,  Richard,  "  Some  Facts  about  Pupil  Self-Government.'"  A 
pamphlet  published  by  the  School  Citizens'  Committee,  2  Wall  Street, 
New  York  City.     A  good  summary  in  favor  of  self-government. 

Clapp,  H.  L.,  "  Self-Government  in  Public  Schools,"  Education, 
29:335-344  (1909).     Arguments  against. 


EDUCATION 


151 


Morehouse,  Frances  M.,  "The  Discipline  of  the  School,"   chapter  iv. 

For  these  and  other  topics  see  "Readers'  (iuide  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture." 

Reports  of  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools,  of  the  State  Commis- 
sioner or  Board  of  Education,  and  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  should  be  used 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  issues  Bulletins  on  many  piiases  of 
education.     A  list  of  these  may  be  obtained  by  writing  the  Bureau. 


The  McKiNLEY  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


CHAPTER   XVI 


HOW  THE  COMMUNITY  AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS  DESIRE  FOR  BEAUTIFUL  SURROUNDINGS 

In  one  important  way  the  growth  of  communities  has 
tended  to  destroy  the  beautiful  surroundings  of  man.     It 


?- 

/Ae 

-^ 

at 

_  III  iiiilli  iMi"Wi 
■    1       ^ 

kU 

^«-«^ 

#-*■ 

%^,xll 

1 

1  Jh^ 

.i 

■1 

±£iMHiai 

T'l  lilli^ 

ti    LL 

^ 

rSsfil 

I^^H 

^-. 

s 

IHi^^^Hl 

wm 

^^-  *■ 

'fifeb. 

r:-^ 

View  of  a  River  Front. 
Notice  the  unsightly  sheds,  the  heaps  of  refuse,  and  the  smoking  factories. 

CivUization  is  a  misfortune  that  much  of  the  natural  beauty 
destroys  of  the  landscape  must  disappear  before  the  ad- 
SaSy  of  vance  of  civilization.  The  forest  and  the  flower- 
nature  clothed  prairie  are  transformed  into   farms  and 

building  sites.  The  hills  are  cut  away  for  the  resources 
that  they  contain.     The  streams  are  lined  with  ugly  and 

152 


CIVIC    BEAUTY 


153 


noisy   factories,    and    clogged    with    refuse.     The    sky    is 
obscured  with  smoke. 

The  community,  acting  sometimes  through  the  govern- 
ment and  sometimes  in  other  ways,  may  prevent  a  great 
deal  of  unnecessary  destruction  of  the  beauty  of 

Unncccssflxv 

nature.     The  national  government  and  some  of  destruction 
the  states  have    forestry  bureaus,    which    have   of  natural 

J-         1     •  1  •  r     ,       r  beauty 

for  their  purpose  the  preservation  of  the  forests. 
Needless  pollution  of  streams  may  be  checked  by  state 


Boulevard  on  the  Bank  of  a  Stream. 
This  stream  is  thus  made  a  most  attractive  feature  in  the  heart  of  a  large  city. 

laws,  and  their  natural  "beauty  in  a  measure  preserved  by 
preventing  dilapidated  and  untidy  premises  along  their 
banks  in  cities,  and  in  some  cases  by  converting  their 
banks  into  parks.  Sentiment  may  be  aroused  among  the 
boys,  in  the  school  and  otherwise,  against  the  killing  of 
birds.  Much  natural  scenery  may  be  preserved  by  the 
creation  of  national  and  state  parks,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Yellowstone  and  the  Yosemite.     Niagara  Falls  is  now  in 


154 


THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 


danger  of  being  transformed  from  one  of  the  great  wonders- 
of  nature  into  a  mere  sluice  for  the  turning  of  mill  wheels- 
unless  the  government  can  be  induced  by  public  sentiment 
to  prevent  it. 

If  natural  beauty  tends  to  disappear  before  the  growth 
of  communities,  the  opportunity  for  art  increases.     Beauti- 
ful houses  and  imposing  business  blocks  make 
Community  ° 

life  creates     their  appearance.     Art  galleries  are    founded. 

opportuni-  Religious  organizations  and  institutions  of  other 
ties  for  art 

kmds    grace     the    community    with    beautiful 


A.  HEAirnFUL  Back  Yard. 
By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

churches  and  other  structures.  Schools  cultivate  the  taste 
for  beautiful  things,  and  the  people  are  taught  how  to 
enjoy  life  in  ways  that  they  could  not  if  they  lived  in 
isolation. 

The  place  to  begin  beautifying  the  community  is  in  the 
home.  The  citizen  who  is  careless  about  the  appearance 
of  his  own  home  is  almost  sure  to  have  little  in- 
terest in  the  appearance  of  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity.    A  home  that  is  unsightly  takes  away  from  the 


Beauty  in 
the  home 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


155 


enjoyment  of  all  who  see  it.  The  first  essential  to  beauty 
is  neatness  and  orderliness.  Ikit  it  is  possible  to  do  more 
than  merely  to  keep  the  premises  clean  and  in  order.  Grass 
can  be  made  to  cover  bare  ground,  or  to  take  the  place  of 
weeds.  There  is  almost  always  a  spot  for  vines  and  flowers 
to  grow,  if  it  is  only  in  window  boxes.  It  is  wonderful 
what  a  transformation  has  often  taken  place  even  among 
the  crowded  dwellings  of  the  poor  in  the  heart  of  cities,  by 


School  Gardening  in  St.  Louis. 

the  introduction  of  vines  over  the  fences,  a  flower  bed 
in  the  small  rear  yard,  and  boxes  of  growing  plants  at  the 
windows.  The  practice  of  thus  adorning  the  dwelling  place 
is  contagious,  and  spreads  from  home  to  home,  and  from 
neighborhood  to  neighborhood.  One  well-kept  lawn  in  a 
neighborhood  is  followed  by  others,  until  whole  squares 
and  whole  streets  present  an  unbroken  view  of  beauty. 

It  is  wonderful  how  much  children  can  do  toward  mak- 
ing the  community  beautiful  in  this  way.     In  Cleveland 


156 


THE  COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


The 

children's 


there  is  a  Home  Gardening  Association,  working  chiefly 
through  the  school  children,  which  has  trans- 
formed home  yards,  school  grounds,  and  vacant 
oppor  nity  j^^^  from  barren  and  disorderly  spots,  in  many 
cases,  into  beautiful  flower  and  vegetable  gardens.  This 
Association  early  learned  that  "  the  easiest  and  surest  way 


x  School  Garden. 
Picking  ana  crating  tomatoes. 

to  results  is  through  the  enthusiasm  of  youth."  In  most 
phases  of  community  life  we  usually  think  that  active  citi- 
zenship is  for  men  and  women ;  but  in  the  beautifying  of 
the  community,  in  which  a  high  type  of  citizenship  can  be 
shown,  the  children  may  take  an  active  and  prominent  part, 
and  are  doing  so  in  many  communities. 

It  is  appropriate  that  the  school  and  the  home  should 
work  together  in  this  matter.   The  school  buildings  scattered 


CIVIC    BEAUTY 


157 


throughout  a  city,  and  also  in  the  country  districts,  should 
be  centers  of  pride  in  their  neighborhoods  be-  Beauty  in 
cause  of  their  beauty.     Happily,  communities  the  school 
are  beginning  to  realize  this,  and  the  architecture  of  schools 
is  improving.     Even  if  the  buildings  are  old  and  ugly,  their 
surroundings,  in  most  cases,  can  be  made  beautiful  and  in 


A  Well-...,.  .  ^i.^ll.. 
Notice  lawns,  pavements,  water  hydrant,  mail-box,  telephone  poles. 

this  the  children  can  have  a  part.  The  work  of  the  Cleve- 
land Home  Gardening  Association  began  with  the  improve- 
ment of  a  school  yard  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

A  city  is  judged  by  the  appearance  of  its  streets  perhaps 
more  than  in  any  other  way,  unless  it  is  by  the  ap[)earance 
of    its  homes.     The  eye  passes  naturally  from   Beauty  in 
one  to  the  other.     The  street  is  public  property,   the  street 
This  means  that  each  citizen  has  a  share  in  it;  he  has  a 
right  to  its  use,  and  a  right  to  expect  that  it  will  be  kept  in 


158  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

good  repair  and  good  order.  He  also  has  a  share  of  the 
responsibility  for  keeping  it  so.  There  was  a  time  in  certain 
cities  when  each  householder  was  required  to  keep  the  street 
directly  adjacent  to  his  property  swept  and  in  good  order. 
At  first  this  was  done  by  the  householder  himself,  or  by 
his  servant.  Then  a  group  of  neighbors  would  unite  in 
employing  some  one  to  do  it  for  the  neighborhood,  or  for 
the  whole  street.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  found  that 
the  work  could  be  done  better  and  more  economically  by 
placing  it  all  under  the  direction  of  a  central  authority,  and 
by  having  a  body  of  men  give  their  whole  time  to  it.  The 
Res  onsi-  expense  was  met  by  taxing  the  householders. 
bUity  of  the  Now  that  the  care  of  the  streets  has  been  shifted 
citizen  from  the  individual  householder  to  the  govern- 

ment of  the  community,  the  householder  has  come  to  feel, 
in  many  cases,  that  he  has  also  shifted  the  responsibility ; 
but  the  employer  is  responsible  for  the  work  of  those 
whom  he  employs. 

In  city  communities  good  pavements  are"  perhaps  the 
first  essential  to  beautiful  streets.  Holes  and  uneven 
Pavements;  places  are  unsightly  as  well  as  unsafe.  A  rough 
noise  pavement  also  adds  to  the  noise  of  a  city.     The 

desire  for  the  beautiful  may  be  satisfied  as  much  through 
the  ear  as  through  the  eye.  Noises  are  often  our  safe- 
guards against  danger.  This  is  the  excuse  for  gongs  on 
street  cars  and  fire  engines,  bells  on  bicycles,  and  whistles 
on  locomotives.  But  the  noise  in  most  of  our  large  cities 
is  unnecessarily  great  and  trying.  In  some  cities  ordinances 
exist  to  decrease  the  amount  of  noise,  as  where  iron  pipes 
must  be  wrapped  before  they  are  hauled  through  the  streets, 
where  the  shrill  whistle  of  interurban  cars  is  forbidden 
within  the  city  limits,  or  where  the  calling  by  hucksters 
and  newsboys  is  forbidden. 


CIVIC  BEAUTY 


159 


In  the  matter  of  clean  streets,  as  in  so  many  other 
things,  prevention  is  better  than  cure.  Refuse  is  often 
swept  or  thrown  into  the  streets,  and  paper  is  Littering 
strewn  along  them  that  should  be  disposed  of  in  t^«  streets 
some  other  way.  Ordinances  sometimes  exist  forbidding 
such  unnecessary  littering  of  the  streets,  but  they  are  in 
the  class  of  regulations  commonly  disregarded.     In  some 


A  Street  in  St.  Louis. 

cities  boxes  are  provided  on  the  street  corners  to  receive 
waste  paper  and  other  matter.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
such  boxes  shall  not  themselves  be  unsightly. 

It  has  been  said  by  some  observing  persons  that  school 
children  are  largely  responsible  for  the  unsightly  appear- 
ance of  our  streets  from  the  scattering  of  scraps  of  paper. 
It  may  not  be  true  that  school  children  are  any  more  in- 
clined to  throw  scraps  in  the  streets  than  other  people.  It 
is  true,  though,  that  they  have  unusual  temptation,  as 
they  come  from  school  with  an  accumulation  of  papers  that 
they  no  longer  want.     Their  large  numbers  make  possible 


i6o 


THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 


a  good  deal  of  paper  scattering  in  a  few  minutes.  If 
children  can  do  a  great  deal  toward  beautifying  the 
community  by  gardening  at  home  and  on  the  school 
grounds,  they  can  also  do  a  great  deal  to  prevent  an  un- 


An  Unsightly  Neighborhood. 
sightly  appearance  by  refraining  from  throwing  papers. 
Habits  formed  in  school  go  a  long  way  in  such  matters. 
Boys  and  girls  who  scatter  scraps  of  paper  in  the  school- 
room and  halls,  will  do  the  same  thing  on  the  streets  and 
in  other  public  places. 

Am.on?  the  roost  beautiful  objects  in  nature  are  trees. 


CIVIC   BEAUTY  l6l 

They  are  also  among  the  objects  that  have  been  most 
recklessly  sacrificed    by  growing   communities,   xhe  beauty 
Nothing  adds  more  to  the  attractiveness  of  a  °^  *"«» 
village  or  a  city  than  shaded  lawns  and  tree-arched  streets. 
What  is  more  pleasant   than    a    country  road  lined  with 
beautiful  trees  ? 

The  trees  of  many  communities  are  suffering  from  the 
ravages  of  insects  and  parasites.  The  government  is 
doing  a  great  deal  toward  discovering  means  to  Destruction 
destroy  the  tree  pests,  and  to  acquaint  the  peo-  fa"fo™of'" 
pie  with  these  means.  The  trees  also  have  trees 
enemies  among  men,  to  whom  they  would  contribute 
so  much  in  health  and  pleasure.  In  the  first  place,  men 
clear  away  fine  trees,  sometimes  necessarily,  but  often 
unnecessarily,  to  make  way  for  so-called  "  improvements." 
Magnificent  trees  are  sacrificed  in  order  that  an  ordinary- 
looking  house  may  be  built  at  a  particular  spot.  Often 
a  home  would  be  improved  a  hundred  fold  in  appear- 
ance, if  the  trees  were  left  and  the  house  placed  farther 
back  or  to  one  side.  A  great  deal  of  monotony  is  pro- 
duced in  our  streets  and  an  opportunity  for  a  display  of 
artistic  taste  is  lost,  by  building  our  houses  too  much  alike, 
and  all  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  street,  without 
regard  to  the  nature  of  the  lots  or  the  disposition  of  the 
trees  and  other  natural  features  upon  them. 

In  the  second  place  we  do  not  take  sufficient  care  to  re- 
place trees  that  die,  or  that  are  necessarily  cut  down.  In 
some  European  cities  it  is  required  by  law  that  every  tree 
that  dies  or  is  removed,  unless  removed  to  prevent  crowding, 
must  be  replaced  by  another.  Trees  are  of  comparatively 
slow  growth,  and  this  may  be  one  reason  why  householders 
hesitate  to  plant  them,  fearing  that  they  may  never  get 
the  benefit  of  them.     This  shows  a  lack  of  community 


1 62 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


^ 

1 

K>  ■-•  •)•  %     /.-^Sm* 

E'V-    ■      •..»   '.•,(•« 

.-•rv.^^"*    /:'  i   ■,  . 

|4 

spirit.  Arbor  Day  affords  an  opportunity  for  children  to 
do  something  in  this  connection.  The  systematic  planting 
of  trees  on  this  day  not  only  helps  to  beautify  the  com- 
munity at  once,  but  is  a  splendid  lesson  in  citizenship. 

One  of  the  worst  kinds  of  tree  mutilation  is  that  which 
makes   way    for  telegraph  or  telephone  poles  and  wires. 

This  is  an  evil  that  ex- 
ists both  in  the  country 
and  in  the  city.  Many 
a  beautiful  street  or  road 
has  been  made  unsightly 
by  such  mutilation  of 
trees.  This  is  a  matter 
for  the  community  gov- 
ernment to  control ;  but 
the  government  will  not 
usually  act  until  the  citi- 
zens show  an  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  trees. 

Telegraph,  telephone,  and  trolley  poles  are  in  themselves 
unsightly.  In  the  business  portions  of  cities  the  network 
Poles  of  wires  is  dangerous  in  time  of  fire,  and  this 

and  wires  ^3.8  led  to  their  removal  in  many  cities.  This 
has  been  accomplished  by  placing  the  wires  underground. 
•Civic  beauty  has  strong  claims  to  the  removal  of  such  un- 
sightly objects  from  the  streets.  Pubhc  sentiment  is  slowly 
being  awakened  in  regard  to  this  matter,  and  the  time 
is  coming  when  the  view  of  a  beautiful  street  will  not  be 
obstructed  by  lines  of  ugly  poles  and  a  network  of  wires. 

Another  means  of  disfiguring  our  streets  is  by  a  reck- 
less use  of  advertising.      Men  have  a  right  to   attract  at- 
tention to  their  wares  ;  but  thought  should  be 

Advertise-  ,  ,        .  i    ^1  i  / 

ments  and     given  to  the  means,  the  time,  and  the  place  ot 

billboards      (Joing  SO.  We  allow  beautiful  features  of  our  com- 


A  Country  Road. 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


163 


munities  to  be  marred,  and  ugly  features  made  more  ugly,  by 
permitting  citizens  to  exercise  perfect  freedom  in  advertising 
for  private  gain.  Unattractive  signs  are  nailed  to  beauti- 
ful trees,  which  should  not  be  marred  by  any  kind  of  sign. 
Ugly  telephone  poles  are  made  still  uglier  by  the  same 
means.     Attractive  residence  streets  are  made  unattractive 


A  View  in  a  City  Park. 

by  huge  billboards  with  inartistic  signs  upon  them.  Even 
the  signs  on  business  blocks,  where  they  have  a  right  to 
be,  are  often  inartistic  and  wholly  out  of  harmony  with 
the  architecture  of  the  street. 

All  cities  have  their  systems  of  parks  and  boulevards, 
though  they  are  developed  more  fully  in  some  cities  than 
in  others.      Boston  has  15,000  acres  devoted  to  parks  and 
parks,  which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  boulevards 
boulevards,  and  include  a  stretch  of  ocean  beach.     Some 


1 64  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE  CITIZEN 

cities  have  preserved  in  their  midst  a  bit  of  natural  scenery 
to  refresh  the  eye.  In  some  of  the  larger  cities  spaces  are  be- 
ing cleared  of  tumble-down  buildings  in  the  crowded  portions 
to  make  way  for  small  parks  with  grass  and  trees,  flowers 
and  fountains,  which  may  bring  a  little  pleasure  into  the  lives 
of  those  who  seldom  enjoy  the  fresh  air  of  the  country. 


An  Unimpru\  ED  Corner. 
The  same  corner  is  shown  improved  in  the  next  illustration. 
By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Such  is  the  little  park  at  Mulberry  Bend,  in  New  York, 
which  was  once  the  center  of  the  most  vicious  part  of  the 
slums.  Parks  and  boulevards  are  under  the  care  of  boards  of 
park  commissioners,  who  sometimes  also  have  care  over  the 
trees  of  all  the  streets.  Sometimes  the  trees  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  special  tree  conimissioners  or  foresters. 
Smoke  is  another  of  the  accompaniments  of  growing 
Prevention  communities.  Smoke,  like  the  network  of  wires 
of  smoke  j^  the  Streets,  has  been  assumed  to  be  a  neces- 
sary sign  of  material  prosperity.     As  the  wires  are  dis- 


CIVIC   BEAUTY 


165 


appearing  beneath  the  surface  of  the  streets,  it  is  also 
being  found  that  clouds  of  black  smoke  are  not  necessary 
to  industry.  A  few  large  cities  have  earnestly  determined 
to  be  free  from  the  smoke,  ordinances  have  been  passed 
and  enforced  against  it,  and  the  beauty  of  the  com- 
munities has  been  greatly  increased  as  a  result. 


fS         -■'     -          1 

**  ♦                1 

?5 

T        I 

- 

^ 

ii 

.^    1 

^  '    ^ 

^ 

W  ti 

■Hi 

[1  1 

1.,  '-^ 

mm 

1 

--.■ 

^^m 

A    CoK.M   K     l.MI'KONKD. 

The  same  as  in  the  precerling  illustration. 
By  courtesy  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Ugly  features  of  community  life  have  been  mentioned 
only  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  our  communities  are  doing 
more  to-day  than  ever  before  to  get  rid  of  them.   ^^   ,    . 

,        •'  ,  '^  The  desire 

There  is  a  steady  improvement  in  the  character  for  beauty 
of  the  architecture  in  our  cities.     The  people  of  ^^  g''o^i°g 

'        '  stronger  m 

small  means  are  living,  not  only  in   more  com-  ourcom- 

fj)rtable    homes,   but  in    more    beautiful    ones.   "^"'^'^'^^ 

Their  taste  for  beauty  and  refinement  is  steadily  growing. 

The  streets  are  constantly  becoming  more  pleasant  to  look 

upon.     Art  museums  are  being  established  in  increasing 


l66  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

numbers.  Civic  Improvement  Associations  and  similar  or- 
ganizations exist  in  almost  every  city  and  town.  Cities 
themselves  are  more  thoughtfully  planning  their  growth 
by  reserving  lands  for  parks  and  parkways,  by  laying  out 
boulevards,  by  grouping  public  buildings,  by  regulating  the 
height  of  buildings,  and  by  preventing  the  growth  of  slums. 
But  there  is  still  much  to  be  accomplished  in  this  direction, 
and  its  accomplishment  depends  on  the  citizens  of  the 
present  and  the  future. 

The  improvement  in  the  surroundings  of  the  people  is 
bound  to  produce  a  better  citizenship.  Men  and  women 
Beautiful  ^^^^  their  spirits,  become  depressed,  when  their 
surround-  surroundings  are  unpleasant.  They  lose  hope 
^^e^better  ^"^  ambition.  Much  of  the  vice  and  crime  of 
citizen-         large  cities  is  no  doubt  induced  by  this  cause. 

^  One  of  the  first  steps  toward  transforming  men 

and  women  into  good  citizens,  who  will  contribute  to  the 
welfare  of  the  community,  is  to  give  them  pleasant 
surroundings, 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Has  any  natural  scenery  been  destroyed  by  the  growth  of  your 
community?     Was  it  altogether  necessary? 

2.  Is  anything  being  done  in  your  community  to  prevent  unneces- 
sary destruction  of  natural  beauty? 

3.  What  relation  has  the  killing  of  birds  to  civic  beauty? 

4.  Report  on  the  use  of  Niagara  Falls  as  a  power  for  industrial  pur- 
poses. What  is  being  done  to  preserve  this  natural  wonder?  Do  you 
think  that  the  usefulness  of  the  Falls  in  industry  justifies  the  destruction 
of  their  beauty? 

5.  Is  your  community  notable  for  its  beautiful  homes?  In  what 
sections  of  the  community  is  the  greatest  care  taken  in  this  respect? 
Why  is  it? 

6.  Observe  the  premises  of  the  homes  in  your  neighborhood,  begin- 
ning with  your  own,  with  reference  to  the  care  of  the  lawn ;  growth  of 
weeds ;  the  accumulation  of  rubbish  ;  the  neatness  of  the  back  yards  ; 


CIVIC   BEAUTY  167 

the  growth  of  flowers ;  the  care  of  the  streets  and  alleys  adjoining. 
Make  a  report  of  conditions,  and  suggest  improvements. 

7.  Let  each  pupil  report  a  plan  to  improve  the  appearance  of  his 
own  yard.     Begin  a  systematic  movement  to  put  these  plans  into  effect. 

8.  Is  your  school  as  beautiful  as  it  could  be  in  the  appearance  of  the 
yard?  In  the  care  of  the  halls  and  rooms?  Could  you  do  anything  to 
improve  it?  Do  the  people  in  the  neighborhood  take  pride  in  the 
school  building  and  grounds  ?     If  not,  how  could  they  be  made  to  do  so  ? 

9.  Are  the  streets  in  your  community  beautiful?  If  not,  what  are 
their  defects?     If  they  are,  what  constitutes  their  beauty? 

10.  Report  on  the  character  of  the  pavements  with  reference  to  their 
appearance. 

11.  What  noises  in  your  community  are  unnecessary?  How  could 
they  be  lessened? 

12.  What  is  done  in  your  community  to  keep  the  streets  clean? 
What  ordinances  e.xist  on  this  matter?  Are  they  observed  and  en- 
forced ? 

13.  Observe  the  trees  in  your  neighborhood,  in  streets  and  lawns, 
and  report  on  their  general  condition  and  appearance.  Is  care  taken 
to  preserve  beautiful  trees?  Is  anything  being  done  in  a  systematic 
way  in  tree  planting?  Are  the  trees  being  mutilated  or  destroyed  by 
linemen  or  otherwise?  Is  any  attempt  being  made  to  create  a  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  the  trees?  Does  the  city  government  provide  any  one 
to  care  for  the  trees  in  the  streets? 

14.  Make  a  report  on  street  advertisements  in  your  neighborhood. 
Observe  whether  the  appearance  of  the  streets,  or  of  private  property, 
is  marred  by  such  advertisements. 

15.  Report  on  the  parks  and  boulevards  of  your  community.  De- 
scribe their  points  of  beauty.  Are  they  used  by  the  people  freely? 
How  are  they  managed? 

16.  What  societies  exist  in  your  community  to  improve  its  appear- 
ance?    How  do  they  work? 

17.  Is  your  community  active  at  the  present  time  in  beautifying  the 
streets  and  public  places  by  the  erection  of  statuary,  monuments,  foun- 
tains, and  in  other  ways? 

18.  Is  the  architecture  of  your  community  improving  in  character? 
Observe  residences,  business  blocks,  churches,  schools,  and  public 
buildings. 

19.  Select  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  your  community 
and  give  a  detailed  description  of  it. 

20.  Is  anything  being  done  in  your  community  to  cultivate  a  taste 
for  beautiful  surroundings  among  those  who  live  in  the  tenements,  or 
in  the  poorer  quarters  of  the  city? 


l68  THE    COMMUNITY  AND   THE   CITIZEN 

21.  Make  a  report  on  city  planning.  If  any  plan  exists  for  your  city, 
describe  it  with  the  help  of  maps  and  diagrams. 

22.  Write  an  essay  on  the  relation  between  civic  beauty  and  good 
citizenship. 

REFERENCES 

Robinson,  "The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities." 

Robinson,  "  Modern  City  Art." 

Eggleston,  N.  H.,  "  Home  and  Its  Surroundings." 

Henderson,  "The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XIV,  ''Social- 
ized Beauty  and  Recreation." 

The  magazine  literature  on  the  subject  of  civic  beauty  is  abundant. 
See  the  ■'  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature." 

The  Avierican  City  contains  in  every  issue  valuable  material  on  the 
subject  of  this  chapter. 

Unwin,  Raymond:  "Town  Planning  in  Practice."  A  standard 
work,  illustrated,  but  rather  high  priced  ($6.00,  Scribners). 

Proceedings  of  Conferences  on  City  Planning.  Address  Flavel 
ShurtlefF,  Secy.,  Boston. 

Greene,  M.  Louise, "  Among  School  Gardens,"  Charities  Publication 
Committee,  New  York. 

McFarland,  J.  Horace,  "Furnishing  the  Streets  in  Suburban  Com- 
munities," in  Suburban  Life,  February,  191 1. 

Publications  of  the  American  Civic  Association,  Washington,  D.C 
Include  pamphlets  on  city  planning,  parks,  billboards,  smoke  nuisance, 
etc. 


s 

CHAPTER  XVII 

HOW  THE  COMMUNITY   AIDS  THE  CITIZEN  TO  SATISFY 
HIS    RELIGIOUS   DESIRE 

The  community  described  in  the  first  chapter  grew  around 
the  college  and  the  church,  which  occupied  the  most 
important  place  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  settlers. 
Every  one  of  those  first  families  was  deeply  religious. 
The  simple  social  life  of  the  early  days  centered  chiefly  in 
the  church.  The  only  government  of  the  village,  for  a 
brief  period,  was  the  government  of  the  .church  organiza- 
tion. These  people  were  o'f  Puritan  descent  and  principles, 
and  they  remind  us  of  the  colonists  of  New  England. 

The  love  of  religion  has  played  a  very  important  part 
in  the  history  of  the  world.     Perhaps  no  other  motive  has 
driven  men  to  action  more  powerfully  than  this.   Religion 
In  the  history  of  our  land  this  is  shown.     The  ^^^  been  a 

-'  powerful 

desire  for  the  spread  of  religion  was  not  the  motive  in 
least  of  the  motives  that  brought  Columbus  to  i"story 
America.  The  Spaniards  made  their  conquests  in  the 
name  of  religion,  and  they  established  missions  wherever 
they  went.  The  priests  led  the  way  in  the  French  explora- 
tion and  settlement  of  America.  The  Pilgrims  came  to 
Plymouth  to  find  freedom  of  religious  worship,  and  all 
through  the  history  of  the  various  colonies  religious  ques- 
tions had  an  important  influence. 

When  the  English  colonies  in  America  were  founded, 
England,  like  most  other  countries  of  the  world,  had  a 
state  religion  and  a  state  church.     That  is,  the  government 


I/O 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


prescribed  what  form  of  religion  the  people  must  observe. 
The  Puritans  came  to  America  because  they  could  not 
conform  to  these  requirements,  and  desired  liberty  to  wor- 
ship as  they  believed  to  be  right.  We  might  think  that, 
since  they  desired  religious  liberty  for  them- 
intokrance  sclves,  when  they  came  to  America  they  should 
in  colonial      have  granted  equal  liberty  to  others  who  came  to 

times 

their  settlements.  Such  was  not  the  case.  The 
Puritans  were  intolerant  of  all  who  differed  from  them  in  re- 
ligious matters.  They  hated  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  They  drove  the  Quakers  away 
from  their  settlements,  and  even  put  some  of  them  to  death. 
Roger  Williams  was  driven  out  from  Massachusetts  partly 
because  of  his  religious  views.  The  Roman  Catholics,  the 
Quakers,  and  the  EpiscopaUans  were  about  as  intolerant 
of  the  Puritans  and  of  each  other  as  the  Puritans  were  of 
them.  It  was  considered  a  remarkable  thing  when  Mary- 
land was  founded  by  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants 
together,  and  that  they  lived  side  by  side  in  harmony. 

In  most  of  the-colonies  there  was  a  very  close  relation 
between  the  church  and  the  government,  as  there  was  in 
The  relation  England,  although  it  was  not  always  the  Church 
between  the   ^^  England  that  was  recognized  in  the  colonies. 

church  and  »  ° 

the  govern-  In  some  colonies  no  one  could  enjoy  full  politi- 
wio^S  ^^^  rights,  such  as  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold 
times  office,  except  members  of  the  church  officially 

recognized  in  the  colony.  In  New  England  the  ministers 
were  usually  the  most  influential  men  in  the  affairs  of  gov- 
ernment. Many  of  the  laws  were  taken  directly  from  the 
Bible,  and  men  were  tried  in  the  courts  and  punished  for 
violation  of  commonly  accepted  religious  beliefs,  as  for 
breaking  the  Sabbath  or  swearing.  Thus  in  various  ways 
'ihe  government  controlled  the  religious  life  of  the  people. 


GOVERNMENT   AND    RELIGION 


i/r 


After  the  Revolution  the  connection  between  the  church 
and  the  government  gradually  became  less  complete.  Re- 
strictions on  the  right  to  vote  because  of  religious  „ 

°  °  Separation 

beliefs  rapidly  disappeared.    With  the  growth  of  between 

democratic  ideas,  according  to  which  one  man  ^^^^^J^g 
has  as  much  right  to  his  opinions  as  another;   govem- 
with  the  increasing  immigration  of   people  of  ™^°^ 
different  nationality  and  religious  belief ;  and  with  the  de- 
velopment of  means  of  communication  by  which  people  of 
different  sections  were  brought  into  contact  with  one  an- 
other, men  became  more  tolerant  of  each  other's  beliefs  and 
forms  of  worship.     It  came  to  be  recognized  that  a  man's 
religious  opinions  were  a  matter  for  his  own  individual  con- 
science, not  to  be  dictated  or  controlled  by  government. 

Accordingly,  when  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  adopted,  an  amendment  was  added  declaring  that 
"  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  "  (Amend- 
ment I).  The  federal  Constitution  does  not,  however, 
prohibit  the  states  from  exercising  control  over  matters 
of  religion.  Some  of  the  states  continued,  for  a  time,  to 
require  religious  qualifications  for  voting.  Some  re- 
fused to  accept  testimony  in  the  courts  from  persons  who 
denied  the  existence  of  God.  In  a  few  cases  churches 
have  received  aid  from  the  state.  Nevertheless,  most 
state  constitutions  now  prohibit  governmental  support  of 
churches,  although  it  is  customary  for  state  governments 
to  exempt  from  taxation  the  property  of  churches. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787,  in  providing  for  the  first  gov- 
ernment of  the  Northwest  Territory,  said,  "  Religion,  mo- 
rality, and  education  being  necessary  to  good  government 
and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means 
of  education  shall  forever  be  encouraged."     Relio:ion  and 


172  THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE   CITIZEN 

education  are  here  coupled  together  and  recognized  as 
The  attitude  two  of  the  greatest  influences  in  the  progress 

of  our  Qf    a.   nation.     A  man's    behefs   have   much  to 

government  .... 

toward  do  With  his  conduct.     His  religion   consists  of 

religion  ^[^  attitude,  not  only  toward  God,  but  also 
toward  his  fellow-men.  It  teaches  him  to  love  his  neigh- 
bor as  himself,  and  to  do  unto  others  as  he  would  be  done 
by.  If  all  men  did  these  things,  we  should  have  better 
communities  and  better  citizenship.  But  so  far  as  our 
government  is  concerned,  its  attitude  toward  the  religious 
life  of  the  citizen  is  merely  to  allow  the  greatest  possible 
personal  liberty  in  the  matter,  and  to  offer  the  fullest  op- 
portunity for  religious  influences  to  develop  the  qualities  of 
good  citizenship. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  great  historical  events  in  the  world 
that  were  due  to  religious  causes. 

2.  Let  individual  pupils  make  reports  on  the  following  topics: 
a.   The  religious  life  of  the  Puritans  in  New  England. 

d.   The  story  of  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania. 

c.  The  story  of  Roger  Williams  and  Anne  Hutchinson. 

d.  Religious  toleration  in  Maryland. 

e.  The  relation  between  the  church  and  the  government  in  colonial 
Massachusetts. 

3.  Report  on  the  religious  life  of  your  community  in  early  days. 

4.  What  different  religious  sects  or  denominations  are  represented 
in  your  community  to-day?  What  other  religious  organizations  are 
there  besides  the  churches?     What  do  they  do  for  the  community? 

5.  Are  there  any  schools,  hospitals,  or  other  institutions  in  your  com- 
munity supported  by  religious  organizations? 

6.  What  does  the  constitution  of  your  state  say  about  religion  ? 

7.  What  provision  is  there  about  teaching  religion  in  the  public 
schools?     Why  is  this? 

REFERENCES 

Howe,  Daniel  Waite,  "  The  Puritan  Republic." 
Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  XXIX. 


( 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

WHAT  THE  COMMUNITY  DOES  FOR  THOSE  WHO  CANNOT 
OR  WILL  NOT  CONTRIBUTE  TO  ITS  PROGRESS 

There  are  three  classes  of  persons  who  contribute  noth- 
ing to  the  advancement  of  the  community.     The  first  class 
consists  of  those  who  are  physically  or  mentally  unable  to 
do  so,  a  class  known  as  defectives.     The    sec-  Defectives, 
ond  class  consists  of  those  who,  though  phvsi-  •^^P^^'^^'^^s, 

'  o       f    J  and  delin- 

cally  able  to  do  something,  arc,  nevertheless,  not  quents 
self-supporting,  and  depend  on  the  community  to  support 
them.  These  are  called  dependents.  The  third  class  con- 
sists of  those  who  live  in  positive  violation  of  the  law 
of  the  community.  These  are  criminals.  These  three 
classes  of  people  have  to  be  taken  account  of  in  every  com- 
munity, and  if  they  cannot  be  made  to  contribute  to  the 
common  welfare,  they  must  at  /least  be  prevented  from 
doing  harm. 

There  was  a  time  in  the  development  of  mankind  when 
the  physically  defective  —  the  blind,  the  crippled,  the  hope- 
lessly ill,  and  the  aged  —  were  such  a  serious  burden  to 
the  community  that  it  was  considered  necessary  Treatment 
to  put  them  to  death.     This  was  a  time  when   f  ^^^  ^t'P" 

less  by  the 

the  very  existence  of  the  community  depended  uncivUized 
on  the  physical  strength  of  its  members.  If  a  man  was 
not  a  fighter  and  a  food  getter,  he  endangered  the  exist- 
ence of  his  fellows.  He  had  to  be  fed  from  the  hard- 
earned  stores  of  the  others,  and  had  to  be  defended 
against   enemies.     Many  savage  tribes  put  to  death  the 

J  73 


174  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

hopelessly  sick,  the  aged,  and  the  crippled.  The  an- 
cient Spartans  exposed  sickly  children  to  die  upon  the 
mountains. 

As  men  have  become  civiHzed,  as  sympathy  for  others 
has  become  stronger,  and  as  it  has  become  easier  to  sustain 
life,  the  weak  and  the  helpless  have  been  taken  under  the 
It  is  the         care  of  the  strong,  and  it  is  now  considered  the 
duty  of  the     juty  of  the  community  to  provide  for  those  who 
toTare^^i/     arc  physically  unable  to  care  for  themselves.    In 
the  helpless    niany  cases  the  defective  may  be  benefited  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  may  become  self-supporting,  and 
able  even  to  contribute  something  to  the  wejfare  of  the 
community.     The  bUnd  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  may  be 
educated  by  special  methods  so  that  they  may  engage  in 
various  occupations  for  their  own  support  and  happiness. 
The  government  has  established  schools  and  asylums  for 
these   unfortunate   classes.     The    government  also   main- 
tains hospitals  for  the  insane,  where  they  are  not  only 
prevented  from  doing  harm  to  others,  but  where  they  are 
also  made  happier,  and  often  cured  and  restored  to  use- 
fulness.    There  are   institutions  for  the  helplessly  crip- 
pled and  the  hopelessly  ill,  where  their  suffering  may  at 
least  be  alleviated.     There  are  also  institutions  for  the 
homeless  aged,  and  for  orphaned  children. 

The  work  of  caring  for  this  class  of  citizens  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  state,  not  of  the  national  government.  Local 
It  is  a  care  communities,  and  especially  cities,  often  do  much 
of  the  state  f qj-  the  care  of  their  defective  members.  But 
the  work  is  so  costly  that  it  is  chiefly  concentrated  in 
the  hands  of  the  state  government,  which  maintains  in- 
stitutions for  the  purpose  in  a  few  favorable  locaHties,  to 
which  the  sufferers  are  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  state. 
The  dependent  class  of  people,  as  distinguished  from  the 


CHARITY   AND   CRIME  175 

defective  class,  consists  of  those  who  through  poverty 
are  a  burden  on  the  community.      Poverty  may 

Poverty 

be  due  to  physical  inability  to  provide  for  one's 
self.  If  this  is  the  case,  there  are  the  institutions  already 
mentioned  to  care  for  such  dependents.  But  the  poverty 
may  be  due,  in  some  cases,  merely  to  bad  management 
and  a  lack  of  foresight.  It  may  often  be  due  to  drunken- 
ness on  the  part  of  one  or  both  of  the  parents,  or  to  lazy 
and  shiftless  habits,  or  to  a  desire  to  live  at  the  expense  of 
others  rather  than  by  honest  effort. 

The  care  of  the  poor  was  at  one  time  almost  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  the  church,  and  the  church  still  does  a  great 
deal  to  this  end.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth a  law  was  passed  by  the  English  parlia- 
ment requiring  each  parish  to  care  for  its  own  poor. 
Since  then  the  government  has  done  much  to  relieve 
poverty,  and  poor  laws  were  enacted  in  America  modeled 
after  those  of  England.  Poor  relief  is  considered  a  matter 
for  the  local  community  to  regulate. 

Poverty   has    always   appealed    to   the   sympathies    of 

people,  and  voluntary  efforts  on  the   part  of  individuals 

and  societies  to  relieve  it  have  long  been  com-   ^,     , 

°  ine  danger 

mon.  Until  recently  this  relief  has  been  offered  inunorgan- 
in  an  altogether  disorganized  way,  each  giver  ^^^  chanty 
giving  as  he  saw  fit,  without  knowledge  of  the  real  needs 
of  the  applicant  for  relief,  or  of  what  other  persons 
and  societies  were  doing.  This  kind  of  charity  has  some- 
times done  more  harm  than  good.  It  may,  indeed,  often  re- 
lieve thesufferingof  the  really  needy  ;  butit  has  justasoften 
encouraged  the  unworthy  to  expect  charity,  and  has  tended 
to  increase  the  dependent  class  instead  of  diminishing  it. 
There  are  many  people  v/ho  will  make  no  effort  to  support 
themselves  so  long  as  they  feel  that  others  will  support 


176  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

them.  Many  professional  beggars  make  a  good  living  by 
taking  advantage  of  the  sympathies  of  random  givers. 
During  a  certain  period  of  great  suffering  among  the  very 
poor  of  American  cities,  due  to  unusually  hard  times,  free 
eating  houses  were  established  in  the  hope  of  relieving  the 
situation.  The  free  food  attracted  hundreds  away  from 
the  work  they  had,  and  greatly  increased  the  army  of  the 
unemployed.  Thoughtless  or  unwise  giving  may  make 
paupers  of  many  who  would  otherwise  be  self-supporting. 

In  nearly  all  of  our  large  cities  at  the  present  time,  and 
in  many  of  the  smaller  ones,  the  relief  of  the  poor  is  be- 
Charity  coming  more  systematic.  Charity  bureaus,  or 
organization  societies,  have  been  created,  which  seek  to  secure 
cooperation  among  all  the  charitable  organizations  of  the 
community.  They  investigate  the  worthiness  of  applicants 
for  relief.  They  expose  impostors,  of  whom  there  are  a 
great  many.  They  seek  to  remove  the  causes  of  poverty 
rather  than  merely  to  relieve  the  needs  of  the  poor  for  the 
time  being.  They  find  employment  for  those  who  need  it 
and  are  able  to  take  it.  They  wage  war  against  the  evils 
of  tenement  life.  They  encourage  the  unfortunate  by 
giving  them  better  opportunities  and  by  creating  in  them 
new  ideals  of  life. 

It  is  of  course  necessary  and  desirable  to  relieve  actual 
suffering  by  gifts  of  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessities. 
It  is  much  more  important  to  provide  an  opportunity,  and 
to  create  a  desire,  for  self-support  by  productive  work.  It 
is  better  for  the  unfortunate  individual,  for  it  gives  him 
greater  self-respect,  and  makes  him  more  independent ; 
and  it  is  better  for  the  community,  because  it  transforms 
those  who  have  been  a  burden  to  others  into  producers 
and  contributors  to  the  general  welfare. 

The  third  class  of  persons  who  contribute  no  good  to 


CHARITY  AND   CRIME 


^77 


the  community  is  the  criminal  class.     This  may  be  said  to 
include  all  offenders  against  the  law  and  order  Crime 
of   the   community,  the   enemies   to  the  rights  of   other 
people. 

The  method  of  dealing  with  criminals  has  changed  very 
greatly  in  the  progress  of  civilization.     Formerly  the  main 
idea   was   punishment,    or   retaliation.     It   was  Treatment 
"  an  eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  a  life  °^  "iminais 

■'  ^     '  'in  early 

for  a  life."  Well  into  the  last  century,  even  times 
in  our  own  country,  the  penalties  inflicted  were  often 
terrible.  Offenders  were  imprisoned  in  dark  and  filthy 
underground  cells.  Tongues  were  pierced,  ears  cut  off, 
and  marks  branded  upon  the  body  with  hot  irons.  Pris- 
oners were  placed  in  stocks  and  held  up  to  the  ridicule 
and  abuse  of  passers-by. 

At  the  present  time  our  ideas  of  the  treatment  of  crimi- 
nals are  very  different.     The  criminal  is  still  an  offender 
against  the  community,  and  he  is  still  believed  xhe 
to  deserve    punishment  of  some    kind.     Much  protection 

r      .        ofthe 

more   important   than    the    punishment   of  the  community 
criminal,  however,  is  the  protection  of  the  com-  ^""^  *^® 

reformation 
munity  against  any  future  crimes.     Two  ideas  of  the 

are  uppermost  in  our  present  methods  of  deal-  criminal 
ing  with  criminals.  The  first  is  to  place  them,  temporarily 
at  least,  where  they  cannot  harm  the  community.  The 
second  is  to  reform  them — or  to  cure  them,  for  crime  is 
now  considered  as  a  result  of  a  mental  and  moral,  if  not 
physical,  disease.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  very  worst 
crimes,  which  may  be  punishable  by  death  or  life  impris- 
onment, the  effort  is  usually  made  to  return  the  pffender 
to  the  community,  in  the  course  of  time,  as  a  useful  citizen. 
Cruel  and  inhuman  punishments  have  been  abandoned. 
The  death  penalty  has  been  abolished,  even  for  murder. 


178  THE   COMMUNITY  AND   THE  CITIZEN 

in  some  states.  It  is  now  quite  common  to  imprison 
offenders  with  an  indeterminate  sentence  ;  that  is,  they  are 
sent  to  prison  for  a  period  the  length  of  which  will  depend 
on  the  conduct  of  the  prisoner  himself  and  on  the  inclina- 
tion he  shows  to  live  right  in  the  community.  Prisoners 
are  comfortably  housed  and  clothed,  and  are  given  whole- 
some food  and,  if  necessary,  medical  attention.  Where 
the  prisoners  are  illiterate,  they  are  often  given  instruction 
in  the  common  branches  of  education.  They  are  made  to 
work,  not  so  much  with  the  idea  of  punishment  as  to  teach 
them  habits  of  industry  and  to  instruct  them  in  some  man- 
ner of  making  an  honest  living. 

Greater  care  than  formerly  is  now  taken  to  prevent 
crime,  in  preference  to  punishing  the  criminal  after  the 
„,  crime    is    committed.     Youthful   offenders    are 

Ine 

prevention  sent  to  reform  schools,  rather  than  to  prisons 
o  crime  designed  for  more  hardened  criminals.  It  was 
once  the  custom  to  imprison  young  offenders,  guilty 
of  some  minor  offense,  together  with  older  and  har- 
dened criminals  guilty  of  serious  crimes.  The  result  of 
this  was  to  harden  the  younger  ones  by  association  with 
the  others.  In  a  few  cities  juvenile  courts  have  been 
established,  where  only  young  offenders  are  tried.  Those 
who  have  just  begun  their  criminal  career  are  often  not 
punished  at  all,  but  are  placed  on  probation ;  that  is,  they 
are  given  their  liberty,  but  under  the  eyes  of  probation 
officers,  or  "official  parents,"  who  look  after  them  and  aid 
them  to  get  a  start  in  life.  Many,  who  would  by  punish- 
ment be  hardened,  are  thus  led  to  become  good  citizens. 

The  regulation  of  crime  and  the  correction  of  criminals 
are  almost  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  state  govern- 
ments. What  is  considered  a  crime  in  one  state 
is  not  always  a  crime  in  another  state;  that  is,  while  the 


CHARITY   AND   CRIME 


179 


act  may  be  just  as  harmful  to  the  community  in  one  state 

as  in  another,  some  states  may  have  no  law  on   „      ,  ,. 

^  Regulation 

the  subject.  Unless  an  act  is  in  violation  of  of  crime  by 
the  law,  it  is  not  legally  a  crime  and  cannot  ^*^®^**^^ 
be  punished  as  such.  The  same  crime  may  be  punishable 
in  different  ways  in  different  states,  because  the  kind  of 
punishment  is  determined  by  state  law.  It  would  be  well 
if  the  states  could  agree  more  closely  in  regard  to  what 
constitutes  crime,  and  how  it  should  be  treated. 

The   national   government    has   jurisdiction    over  some 
kinds   of   crimes.     Since   the   entire    government   of   the 
territories  and  of  the  District  of  Columbia  is  in 
the  hands  of  Congress,  this  body  defines  crime  of  crime  by 
in  these  places  and  fixes  its  penalties.    Crimes  the  national 

,     ,  ,  ,  government 

agamst  national  law,  wherever  they  are  com- 
mitted, are  punishable  by  the  national  government.  The 
accused  person  is  tried  before  a  federal  court  in  the 
state  where  the  crime  is  committed.  For  instance, 
violation  of  the  postal  laws,  counterfeiting  money,  or 
evading  the  laws  for  the  regulation  of  interstate  commerce 
are  crimes  punishable  by  the  national  government.  The 
national  government  also  has  jurisdiction  over  crimes 
against  the  laws  of  nations,  as  contained  in  treaties,  and 
over  piracy.  One  crime  against  the  nation  is  punishable 
by  death,  —  treason,  the  worse  crime  recognized  by  civilized 
nations.  The  Constitution  defines  treason  against  the 
United  States  as  "  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering 
to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort"  (Art.  Ill, 
sec.  3).  In  order  to  convict  a  person  of  treason  there 
must  be  two  witnesses  of  the  treasonable  act  to  give 
evidence  against  him. 

In  order   that   no    injustice  may   be    done  to  innocent 
persons,  the  rights  of  accused  persons  are  protected  care- 


l8o  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

fully  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a 
The  pro-  principle  of  law  that  every  accused  person  is 
tection  of       assumed  to  be  innocent  until  he  is  proved  to  be 

the  rights  oi  '■ 

the  accused  guilty.  Every  precaution  is  taken  to  secure  for 
him  a  fair  trial.  He  is  entitled  to  a  trial  by  a  jury  of  his 
fellow-citizens  in  the  locality  where  the  crime  occurred. 
The  accusing  witnesses  must  give  their  evidence  to  the 
court  in  the  presence  of  the  accused  and  he  is  entitled 
to  witnesses  in  his  favor,  as  well  as  lawyers  to  defend 
him.  He  may  not  be  compelled  to  testify  against  himself. 
These  are  a  few  of  the  careful  provisions  made  to  protect 
even  a  guilty  citizen  against  injustice. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

T.  What  public  institutions  are  there  in  your  community  for  the 
care  of  defective  persons?  Are  there  any  private  institutions  of  a 
similar  kind.'* 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  institutions  and  associations  that  you  know 
of  in  your  community  for  the  care  of  the  poor. 

3.  Is  there  charity  organization  in  your  community?  Find  out  its 
methods  of  work. 

4.  What  does  your  local  government  do  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor? 

5.  Report  on  the  treatment  of  criminals  in  colonial  times.  (See 
McMaster,  "  History  of  the  American  People,"  vol.  I,  pp.  93-102.) 

6.  What  reform  schools  are  there  in  your  state?  How  are  the  in- 
mates of  these  schools  dealt  with  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  juvenile  court  in  your  community?  If  so,  report  on  its 
work,  and  describe  the  work  of  the  probation  officers. 

8.  Debate  the  question,  "  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished." 

REFERENCES 

Henderson,  "  The  Social  Spirit  in  America,"  chapter  XV. 

Henderson,  "  Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delinquents." 

Warner,  "  American  Charities." 

Wines,  "  Punishment  and  Reformation." 

Morrison,  "  Juvenile  Offenders." 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XLIX,  L. 

Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  chapter  X. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

HOW   THE   CITIZENS   OF   A   COMMUNITY   GOVERN 
THEMSELVES 

We  have  now  looked  at  the  hfe  of  the  community  from 
several  points  of  view.  We  have  seen  that  the  people  are 
striving  to  satisfy  their  desires  in  a  variety  of  ^j^^  purpose 
ways.  We  have  seen  that  there  are  common  of  govern- 
interests,  and  that  the  welfare  of  one  is  the  wel-  ™^°* 
fare  of  all.  Yet  it  does  not  always  seem  so.  Men  do  not 
always  recognize  their  dependence  on,  and  obligation  to, 
others.  Sometimes  they  lack  sufficient  knowledge  to  do 
so.  Sometimes  they  selfishly  disregard  the  rights  of  others, 
as,  for  example,  when  a  man  persists  in  clouding  the  at- 
mosphere with  smoke  from  his  factory,  although  he  knows 
it  is  injuring  the  community;  or  when  a  railroad  charges 
unjust  rates,  or  affords  inadequate  facilities  for  trans- 
portation. Consequently  we  often  get  the  impression  that 
community  life  is  a  life  of  conflict  rather  than  of  harmoni- 
ous action.  Under  such  imperfect  conditions  there  must 
be  some  just  agency  that  is  more  far-sighted  than  any 
individual  can  be,  to  secure  the  intelligent  w^orking  to- 
gether of  all.  Such  an  agency  government  is  intended 
to  be. 

The  first    idea  that  we    must    understand    about  gov- 
ernment in  America  is  that  it  is  intended  to  be  Govern- 

./  .     y-      7  7  7  7     •  ment  the 

tlie  servant  oj  the  people  and  not  their  7naster.   servant,  not 

Wh^n  it  begins  to  act  contrary  to   the  will  of  t^e  master, 

.1  ,         .  ,  1    •         .    ,     r    1  of  ^he 

the  people,   it  goes  beyond  its  rightful  powers,   people 

iSi 


l82  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

The  American  colonists  sought  their  independence 
from  England  because  the  English  government  in- 
sisted on  taxing  them,  and  otherwise  exercising  authority 
over  them,  without  their  consent.  In  1787  a  conventiorb  of 
leading  men  of  the  country,  chosen  by  their  respective 
states,  met  in  Philadelphia,  and  after  four  months  of  dis- 
cussion laid  before  the  people  of  the  thirteen  states  a  Con- 
stitution, containing  a  plan  of  government.  The  preamble 
of  this  Constitution  emphasizes  the  fact  that  this  gov- 
ernment was  established  by  the  people  to  do  certain  things 
for  them. 

The  simplest  form  of  self-government  is  where  the 
people  meet  together  and  make  their  own  laws.  Such 
Direct  and  was  the  town  meeting  in  New  England.  When 
representa-    ^^g  community  grows  large,  it  becomes  imprac- 

tiv6  self'" 

govern-  ticable  for  the  citizens  to  attend  to  the  details  of 

ment  government  by  such  means.     Then  they  resort 

to  the  plan  of  selecting  certain  of  their  number  to  perform 
the  work  of  government  for  them.  This  is  representative 
self-government.  The  representatives  ^the  people,  chosen 
by  the  people,  act  for  the  people. 

The  next  fact  about  our  government  that  we  must 
understand  is  its  threefold  character.  In  the  preceding 
The  three-  chapters  there  has  been  constant  reference  to 
fold  char-      /oca/,  state,   and   national  governments.     Each 

aCter   of    our  .  .  ,  ,  ^         r        ^^       ^  T^-1^ 

govern-  oi  US  IS  under  the  control  of  all  three.  It  might 
^e^'-  seem,  at  first  thought,  that  we  are  greatly  op- 

pressed with  government.  We  must  remember  that  ive,  the 
people,  are  our  own  rulers,  and  that  we  have  simply  found 
it  more  convenient  and  more  to  our  advantage  to  have 
three  groups  of  governing  machinery  than  one.  Each 
group  has  its  particular  work  to  do  for  us.  Let  us  now 
see  how  the  division  of  powers  is  made  among  them. 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         183 

The  first  division  of  powers  is  that  between  the  state 
and  national   governments.      When  the   Constitution  was 
made,  the  thirteen    states  were    already  in  ex-   jy-^^^^^Q^  ^f 
istence,  each  with  its  own  government  organized  powers  be- 
under  a  state  constitution.     Why,  then,  was  it  t,^na"and 
necessary  to    have   a  national  government    in    state govern- 
addition  ?     It  was  because  while  the  states  were  ™*°  ^ 
thirteen     separate     communities     in     many     particulars, 
they    were,    in     other     particulars,  only    parts     of     one 
community  with  certain    interests    common   to   all   alike. 
This  was  illustrated  in  chapter  XII  (see  page  100).     The 
union  of  a  number  of  states  under  a  central  government 
constitutes  a  federal  nation.     The  central  government  is 
called  the  federal  government. 

The  federal  government  may  exercise  only  such  powers 
as  are  granted  to  it  by  the  people  in  the  Constitution,  and 
these  powers  are  few  in  number  though  very  important. 
They  are  enumerated  in  section  8  of  article  I  of  the  Con- 
stitution. All  other  powers  are  left  with  the  states.  The 
tenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution  says,  "The  powers 
not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states  [see  Art.  I,  sec.  10],  are 
reserved  to  the  states  respectively,  or  to  the  people."  By 
this  arrangement  the  states  retain  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  governing  powers.  Where  the  national  government 
controls  our  conduct  once,  the  state  government  controls  it 
many  times.  The  state  government  protects  us  in  our  re- 
ligious rights  (chapter  XVII),  provides  for  our  education 
(chapter  XV),  determines  who  shall  have  the  right  to  vote 
(page  188),  prescribes  the  rules  of  marriage  and  of  family 
relations,  has  almost  the  entire  care  of  our  health  (chapter 
IX),  protects  our  property  (chapter  X),  controls  business 
relations  of  every  kind  except  where  foreign  and  interstate 


1 84  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

relations  are  concerned  (chapter  XII),  and  provides  for  the 
prevention  and  punishment  of  crime,  except  in  a  very  few 
cases  that  come  under  national  control,  such  as  the  coun- 
terfeiting of  money  and  the  robbing  of  the  mails  (chap- 
ter XVIII). 

In  this  division  of  powers  betw.een  state  and  national 
governments  we  see  the  American  love  for  self-govern- 
ment emphasized.  The  people  of  each  state  retain  for 
themselves  the  regulation  of  almost  all  the  details  of  their 
lives.  In  the  course  of  our  history,  however,  as  the  nation 
has  become  more  closely  bound  together  by  common  in- 
terests, and  as  one  part  has  become  more  dependent  upon 
others,  there  has  been  a  constant  tendency  for  the  national 
government  to  extend  the  scope  of  its  powers  by  a  brand 
interpretation  of  certain  clauses  in  the  Constitution.  For 
example,  it  was  by  a  broad  interpretation  of  the  power  to 
regulate  interstate  commerce  that  Congress  enacted  pure 
food  laws,  thus  protecting  the  health  of  the  people,  which 
has  been  considered  primarily  a  duty  of  the  state,  against 
the  distribution  of  injurious  or  unwholesome  food  materials. 
In  other  ways  the  national  government  is  extending  its  ac- 
tivities in  behalf  of  the  pubUc  welfare,  where  the  interests 
of  the  nation  as  a  whole  demand  it. 

The  second  division  of  the  powers  of  government  is  be- 
tween the  central  state  government  and  the  government 
Relation  be-  of  local  communities.  The  relation  between  the 
tween  state     ]ocal  and  State  governments  is  somewhat  differ- 

and  local  '^ 

govern-  cnt  from  the  relation  between  the  state  and  the 
ments  national  governments.     The  state  governments 

are  in  no  sense  branches  of  the  national  government. 
State  and  national  governments  both  get  their  powers 
directly  from  the  people.  The  local  governments  are 
merely  branches  of  the  state  government,  and  get  their 


2.    Laying  thr  tuundation  course. 


3.   Finishing  the  road. 
Road  Making  by  thk  National  Government. 
This  road  in  Tennessee  was  selected  for  improvement  as  an  object  lesson.    The 
photographs  were   furnished  by  the    Public   Roads    Inquiry  Office,  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


HOW  THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS    ITSELF         185 

powers  from  it,  and  not  from  the  people  of  the  local  com- 
munity. The  state  government  is  organized  according  to 
a  plan  laid  down  in  the  state  constitution,  which  is  framed 
by  the  people  themselves.  A  city  government  is  organized 
according  to  a  plan  laid  down  in  a  charter,  which  \?,  granted 
to  the  people  of  the  city  by  the.  state.  The  local  governments 
have  for  their  work  primarily  the  carrying  out  of  the  laws 
enacted  by  the  state  government.  Their  duties  are  chiefly 
administrative.  For  example,  there  is  a  state  law  against 
burglary ;  but  it  is  the  local  officers  who  protect  property 
against  burglars  and  arrest  offenders.  Local  governments 
are  allowed  some  law-making  powers,  especially  in  cities, 
where  the  city  council  enacts  ordinances  (see  chapter 
XXII).  The  principle  of  the  division  of  powers  between 
state  and  local  governments,  however,  is  the  same  as  in 
the  division  between  national  and  state  governments  ;  that 
is,  to  leave  matters  that  touch  the  life  of  the  individual 
most  closely,  and  are  of  purely  local  interest,  in  the  hands 
of  the  local  government  as  much  as  possible,  while  matters 
of  more  general  interest,  such  as  the  regulation  of  the  rail- 
roads and  matters  of  general  health,  are  regulated  by  the 
central  state  government. 

The  relation  of  the  different  governments  to  each  other 
and  to  the  people  is  shown  by  the  diagram  on  page^  186. 

A  third  important  feature  of  the  organization   of  our 
government  is  the  separation  of  poivers  among  the  three 
branches  —  legislative,   executive,    and  judicial,   jhe  ggpa. 
The   laws  are  made  by  the  legislative  branch,   ration  of 
The  enforcement  of  these  laws  is  intrusted  to  ex^gcud've!' 
the  executive  branch.     If  any  question  arises  as  andjudi- 
to  the  meaning  of  the  laws,  it  is  finally  settled  *^'    powers 
by  the  judicial  branch.     The  purpose  of  the  separation  of 
powers  is  to  prevent  any  one  man,  or  group  of  men,  from 


1 86 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


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HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         187 

acquiring  too  much  authority  and  becoming  despotic.  The 
legislative  body  may  restrain  the  executive  by  refusing  to 
appropriate  money  for  executive  purposes,  as  often  hap- 
pened in  the  colonies;  or  it  may  impeach  the  executive 
(see  page  256).  The  executive  may  veto  a  law  passed  by 
the  legislature.  The  judicial  branch  has  the  final  power  to 
determine  whether  a  law  is  in  accordance  with  the  consti- 
tution. There  is  thus  a  system  of  checks  and  balances  by 
which  each  branch  of  government  is  restrained  by  the 
others,  thus  safeguarding  the  liberties  of  the  people.  This 
system  is  found,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  local,  state, 
and  national  governments,  though  it  is  less  definite  in 
cities. 

It    is   a    principle    of    American    government    that    the 
people's  representatives   shall  be    chosen    by   the    people 
of  the  various  localities  from  their  own  number.   Represent- 
The  English  colonists  in  America  felt  that  they  chosen  by 
were  not  represented  in  the  House  of  Commons,   the  people 
because  they  did  not  have  a  voice  in  choosinj^^  own  loca^ 
representatives  to  that  body,  nor  did  any  member  districts 
of  the  House  come  from  America.     In  the  early  history  of 
Massachusetts   the    people    gradually  allowed    the  taxing 
power  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  a  few  men  called  the  gov- 
ernor's assistants,  who  held  office  from  year  to  year  with- 
out reelection.     One  day  the  people  at  Watertown  decided 
"that  it  was  not  safe  to  pay  moneys  after  that  sort,   for 
fear  of  bringing  themselves  and  posterity  into  bondage." 
Therefore   "  every    town    chose  two    men    [from  its  own 
citizens]  to  be  at  the  next  court  to  advise  with  the  governor 
and  assistants  about  the  raising  of  a  public  stock,  so  as 
what  they  should  agree  upon  should  bind  all."     This  idea 
has  determined  the  usual  practice,  in   the  United  States. 
City  councils  commonly  consist  of  representatives  from  the 


l88  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

several  city  wards,  though  this  is  not  always  true.  In  some 
states  at  least,  each  township  has  its  representatives  on 
the  board  of  county  commissioners.  Each  state  is  divided 
into  districts,  from  each  of  which  a  representative  is  sent 
to  the  state  legislature,  and  into  other  districts  from  each 
of  which  a  representative  is  sent  to  the  lower  house  of  the 
national  Congress.  Each  state  has  two  representatives 
in  the  United  States  Senate. 

The  right  to  vote  for  representatives  in  the  government 
is  called  the  suffrage.  It  is  not  a  right  that  all  citizens 
The  suf-  possess,  like  the  right  to  life,  liberty,  and  prop- 
frage  erty.     It  is  a  privilege  bestowed  by  the   state 

on  those  who  have  certain  qualifications.  These  qualifica- 
tions are  prescribed  by  the  state  constitutions.  Only  in 
one  case  does  the  United  States  Constitution  limit  the 
right  of  the  state  to  regulate  the  suffrage ;  that  limitation 
is  found  in  the  fifteenth  amendment,  adopted  after  the 
Civil  War,  which  reads,  "  The  right  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by 
the  United  States,  or  by  any  state,  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 

At  the  beginning  of  our  history  the  right  to  vote  was 
limited  to  a  relatively  small  number  of  the  citizens.  These 
Q    j.g  restrictions    have    largely  been    removed.     We 

tionsfor  have  become  more  democratic.  But  there  are 
the  suffrage  ^j.-^  g^j^g  restrictions,  which  vary  more  or  less 
in  the  different  states.  In  no  state  may  any  one  vote  who 
is  under  twenty-one  years  of  age.  All  states  require  a 
residence  in  the  state,  and  in  the  county  and  city  ward,  for 
a  certain  time  prior  to  voting.  In  colonial  times  the  right 
to  vote  was  denied  to  all  who  did  not  own  a  certain  amount 
of  property.  To-day  property  restrictions  have  been  almost 
wholly  removed.     It  was  also  common,  in  colonial  times,  to 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         189 

deny  the  right  to  vote  to  all  who  were  not  members  of  the 
church  (see  page  170).  All  religious  qualifications  have 
long  since  been  removed.  The  suffrage  is  denied  to  citi- 
zens who  are  mentally  unsound,  and  in  some  states  to  those 
who  cannot  read  and  write,  and  to  paupers.  A  citizen  may 
also  be  disqualified  from  voting  by  crime.  With  compara- 
tively few  exceptions,  all  male  citizens  who  are  twenty-one 
years  of  age  or  over  possess  the  suffrage.  In  a  few  states 
even  aliens  may  vote  at  all  elections,  provided  they  have 
declared  their  intention  of  becoming  citizens. 

The  suffrage  has  long  been  denied  to  women,  but  there 
is  now  a  strong  movement  in  favor  of  extending  it  to  them. 
As  early  as  1691  women  property  holders  in  woman 
colonial  Massachusetts  were  permitted  to  vote,  suffrage 
New  Jersey  by  its  first  constitution  gave  the  suffrage  to 
women,  provided  they  owned  a  certain  amount  of  property, 
but  the  right  was  taken  from  them  early  in  the  last  century. 
Since  that  time,  the  first  state  to  grant  the  suffrage  to 
women  on  full  equality  with  men  was  Wyoming,  which 
entered  the  Union  in  1890  with  a  constitutional  provision 
for  it.  Colorado  followed  the  example  of  Wyoming  in 
1893,  and  Utah  and  Idaho  in  1896.  Not  until  19 10  did 
another  state  extend  full  suffrage  to  women,  when  the 
state  of  Washington  did  so,  followed  during  the  next  two 
years  by  California,  Kansas,  Oregon  and  Arizona. 

In  addition  to  these  nine  states  which  at  present  possess 
complete  woman  suffrage,  Illinois  now  permits  women  to 
vote  for  presidential  electors,  for  all  elective  city  officers, 
and  for  some  state  and  county  officers ;  the  suffrage  has 
been  granted  to  the  women  of  the  territory  of  Alaska ; 
about  twenty  states  permit  women  to  vote  on  school  ques- 
tions, or  to  exercise  the  suffrage  in  other  restricted  ways ; 
and  a  number  of  states  are  about  to  submit  to  a  vote  of  the 


igo  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

people  amendments  to  their  constitutions  which,  if  adopted, 
will  very  much  extend  the  poHtical  equality  of  women. 

If  at  an  election  each  voter  should  cast  his  vote  for  the 
man  of  his  individual  choice,  it  might  easily  happen  that 
Nomina-  among  the  many  men  voted  for  no  one  would 
tions  fairly  represent  a  large  number  of  citizens.     It 

is  necessary  that  the  choice  of  the  voters  be  limited  to  a 
few  men  who  are  nominated  as  the  regular  candidates  for 
the  offices  in  question.  The  method  of  nomination  that 
has  long  been  practiced  is  very  complicated.  It  was  not 
prescribed  in  the  state  or  national  constitutions,  nor  by 
law,  but  grew  up  gradually  and  became  fixed  by  custom. 
In  order  to  understand  it,  it  is  necessary  to  know  some- 
thing about  political  parties. 

In  every  community  there  are  differences  of  opinion  on 
almost  any  question,  as  in  religion,  in  educational  matters. 
Political  or  ii^  business  policy.  If  any  such  question  is 
parties  ^q  be  acted  upon,  those  whose  opinions  are  alike 

will  act  together  in  opposition  to  those  who  think  differ- 
ently. In  questions  of  government  there  are  differences 
of  opinion.  In  the  division  of  the  people  on  any  such 
question,  those  who  think  alike  and  act  together  systemati- 
cally and  constantly  constitute  a  political  party.  The  party 
may  be  of  a  local  character  and  may  be  formed  with  refer- 
ence to  a  local  question,  such  as  the  paving  of  the  streets 
or  the  licensing  of  saloons ;  or  it  may  be  national  in  its 
extent  and  arise  out  of  some  great  national  question,  such 
as  the  extension  of  slavery  or  the  acquiring  of  new  territory. 

When  Washington  was  first  elected  President,  questions 
of  governmental  policy  had  not  yet  divided  the  people, 
and  his  popularity  was  so  great  that  all  united  on  him 
as  their  choice  for  the  presidency.  When  differences  of 
opinion  arose  over  the  bank,  foreign  policy,  internal  im- 


HOW   THE    COMMUNITY    GOVERNS    ITSELF         191 

provements,  and  other  matters,  each  party  strove  to  elect  rep- 
resentatives to  the  government  who  would  carry  out  its  ideas. 
It  must  first  of  all  agree  on  a  single  candidate  for  each  of 
the  offices,  so  that  the  party's  vote  would  not  be  divided. 

The  first  method  used  by  the  parties  for  the  nomination 
of  a  candidate  for  the  presidency  was  for  the  representa- 
tives of  each  party  in  Congress  to  meet  and  Methods  of 
make  the  nomination.  This  method  after  a  nominating 
while  became  unpopular  because  the  nomina- 
tion fell  into  the  hands  of  a  small  group  of  politicians,  and 
the  people  felt  that  they  did  not  have  a  sufficient  voice  in 
the  matter.  Then  the  custom  arose  of  making  the  nomi- 
nations in  the  several  states.  Sometimes  it  was  done  by 
the  party  members  of  the  state  legislature.  The  custom 
gradually  began  to  prevail  of  holding  state  conventions 
composed  of  delegates  elected  especially  for  the  purpose 
by  the  people  of  the  state.  This  method  had  the  advan- 
tage of  placing  the  nomination  more  directly  in  the  hands 
of  the  people.  It  had  the  disadvantage  of  tending  to 
divide  the  party,  for  each  state  was  hkely  to  nominate  its 
own  favorite  candidate  regardless  of  the  action  of  the  other 
states.  This  difficulty  was  finally  overcome  by  placing  the 
nomination  of  the  candidates  for  the  presidency  and  the 
vice-presidency  in  the  hands  of  a  national  convention  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  all  the  states.  This  is  the  method 
still  in  use  for  the  nomination  of  the  President  and  the 
Vice-President. 

F'or  the  nomination  of  officers  other  than  the  President 
and  Vice-President  the  nominating  convention  is  giving 
way,  in  some  states,  to  another  method  which  is  Primary 
described   on   page   193.     But    since    it   is    still  elections 
widely  used  let  us  briefly  describe  the  steps  leading  to  it. 
Let  us  suppose  that  an  election  time  is  approaching,  and 


192  THE   COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

that  local,  state,  and  national  officers  are  to  be  elected  at 
one  time,  although  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Several 
months  before  the  election  day,  the  proper  committees  of 
each  party  call  for  what  have  been  known  as  the  primary 
elections.  These  must  not  be  confused  with  the  direct 
primaries  to  be  described  later.  The  so-called  primary 
elections  are  elections  held  in  each  of  the  smallest  (pri- 
mary) election  districts  of  the  state.  In  cities  the  primary 
district  is  a  zvard,  or  precinct  of  the  ward ;  in  rural  com- 
munities it  is  the  township,  or  precinct  of  the  township. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  primary  election  to  nominate  can- 
didates for  offices  of  the  primary  district,  as  ward  council- 
men  or  township  trustees,  and  to  elect  delegates  to  nominat- 
ing convejitions  of  larger  districts.  This  business  is  trans- 
acted sometimes  by  ballot,  each  voter  going  to  the  voting 
place  some  time  during  the  day  ;  sometimes  in  a  meeting, 
or  cancns,  of  the  voters,  very  much  on  the  order  of  a  town- 
meeting. 

The  primary  elections  are  followed  in  due  time  by  the 
various  conventions  to  nominate  candidates  for  the  offices 
Nominating  of  the  districts  which  they  represent,  and  to 
conventions  choose  delegates  to  still  other  conventions  for 
larger  districts.  County  conventions  nominate  for  county 
offices ;  city  conventions  for  city  offices ;  assembly  district 
conventions  for  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature ; 
senatorial  district  conventions  for  the  state  senate ;  con- 
gressional district  conventions  for  the  lower  house  of  con- 
gress ;  and  state  conventions  for  state  offices.  The  state 
conventions  elect  delegates  to  the  national  convention  for 
the  nomination  of  the  President  and  Vice-President.  The 
nominees  are  chosen  from  among  a  number  of  men  who 
have  previously  been  announced  as  candidates,  or  who 
have  been  determined  upon  by  the  party  managers. 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS   ITSELF         193 

Faithful  party  members  are  expected  by  the  party 
managers  to  render  their  support  to  the  candidates  nomi- 
nated by  their  respective  primaries  and  conven-  independ- 
tions ;  but  at  every  election  there  are  many  in-  ^'^^  voting 
dependent  voters  who  scratch  their  ballots,  that  is,  scratch 
off  the  names  of  some  of  their  party  candidates  and  sub- 
stitute the  names  of  candidates  of  other  parties.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  many  voters  think  it  more  im- 
portant to  elect  good  men  than  that  any  particular  party 
should  possess  all  the  offices.  Ballot  scratching  has  been 
more  common  in  local  elections  than  in  national  elections, 
because  party  lines  are  not  so  clearly  drawn  in  the  former 
as  in  the  latter ;  but  it  has  been  increasing  even  in  national 
elections,  and  seems  to  indicate  that  the  voters  are  form- 
ing the  habit  of  deciding  for  themselves  as  to  the  desira- 
bility of  candidates,  instead  of  allowing  a  group  of  partv 
leaders  to  decide  for  them. 

The  method  of  nomination  that  has  just  been  described 
is  not  only  complicated,  but  it  is  objected  to  on  other 
grounds,  chiefly  because  it  places  the  determina-  „     .     . 

.  J  r  Nomination 

tion  of  the  candidates  for  election  in  the  hands  by  direct 
of  a  few  party  leaders  instead  of  in  the  hands  P"™*"^^ 
of  the  people  themselves.  In  many  states,  therefore,  it 
has  already  been  supplanted  by  nomination  by  direct  pri- 
maries. In  most  of  the  states  that  have  adopted  this 
method,  both  state  and  local  officers  are  so  nominated,  but 
in  others  the  direct  primary  is  used  only  for  the  nomina- 
tion of  local  officers,  the  state  officers  being  nominated  by 
the  convention  system  as  of  old.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  direct  primary  will  soon  become  the  regular  method  of 
nomination  in  all  states. 

The  methods  of  conducting  direct  primaries  differ  in 
different  states;    but,  in  general,   any  citizen  possessing 


194  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

the  proper  qualifications  for  holding  office  may  become  a 
candidate  for  nomination  to  a  given  office  by  securing  the 
signatures  of  a  specified  number  of  voters  to  a  petition. 
His  name  is  then  placed  on  the  primary  ballot  of  his  party 
along  with  the  names  of  all  others  vv^ho  have  filed  similar 
petitions.  On  the  day  of  the  primaries  the  voters  go  to 
the  polls,  or  voting  places,  and  cast  their  ballots  as  at  a 
regular  election,  after  having  marked  the  names  of  the 
candidates  of  their  choice.  The  candidate  for  a  given 
office  who  receives  the  largest  number  of  votes  (in  some 
cases  a  majority  is  required)  becomes  the  nominee  of  his 
party  for  that  office.  The*  direct  primary  is  followed  in 
due  time  by  the  regular  election,  at  which  the  contest  is 
between  the  nominees  of  the  various  parties. 

While  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  still  nomi- 
nated by  a  national  convention,  in  a  number  of  states  laws 
p  'd  fal  ^^^^  been  passed  providing  for  presidential 
preferential  preferential  primaries,  at  which  the  voters  at 
pnmanes  ^j^^  polls  express  their  preference  for  the  presi- 
dential candidate.  The  delegates  to  the  national  conven- 
tions from  a  state  holding  such  a  primary  are  thus  instructed 
by  the  voters  for  whom  to  vote  as  their  nominee.  Bills 
have  been  introduced  in  Congress  to  provide  for  presiden- 
tial nominating  primaries  throughout  the  United  States. 
So  far  none  of  these  has  become  law ;  but,  if  such  a  law 
is  enacted,  it  will  do  away  with  the  national  conventions 
for  nominating  the  President  and  Vice-President. 

The  period  of  three  or  four  months  between  the  nomi- 
nations and  the  election  day  is  spent  by  each  party  in 
The  cam-  trying  to  win  support  for  its  candidates.  The 
paign  winning  of  votes  sometimes  seems  to  be  the  all- 

important  thing,  not  always,  unfortunately,  with  due  re- 
gard to  the  right  or  wrong  of  the  methods  used. 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERxNS    ITSELF 


195 


At  a  specified  time  before  election  day,  every  voter  is 
required  to  register  zX  his  proper  voting  place.  This  means 
recording  his  name,  age,  residence,  and  other  Registration 
information  necessary  to  prove  his  right  to  vote,  ®"^  election 
and  is  intended  to  prevent  fraudulent  voting.  On  election 
day  he  again  goes  to  the  polls,  is  given  a  ballot  upon  which 


A.\  r 


rioN  Scene. 


Each  voter  has  his  name  checked  off  from  the  book  where  it  is  registered,  and 
then  passes  into  the  building,  where  he  casts  his  vote. 

are  printed  the  names  of  all  candidates,  and  in  the  privacy 
of  a  voting  booth  marks  the  names  of  those  candidates  for 
whom  he  wishes  to  cast  his  vote.  He  then  hands  his  bal- 
lot folded  to  an  election  officer  who  deposits  it  in  the  ballot 
box  to  await  counting  at  the  end  of  the  election  dav. 

To  arrange  for  the  nominations,  to  carry  on  the  cam- 
paign, and  to  provide  for  the  elections,  requires  a  thorough 
organization  of  the  party.     The  management  is  largely  in 


196  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

the  hands  of  committees.  Each  of  the  election  districts 
named  above,  from  the  ward  to  the  state  and  nation,  has 
^       .  its    central    committee.     It  is   the    business   of 

Organiza- 
tion of  the      these    committees    to    keep    in    touch  with   the 

'*^  voters,  to  gather  and  distribute  information,  to 

collect  and  disburse  funds  for  the  conduct  of  the  campaign, 
to  provide  speakers,  publish  literature,  and  to  do  many- 
other  things.  The  committees  of  the  larger  districts,  and 
especially  the  state  and  national  committees,  are  of  great 
importance  and  exert  great  influence.  The  chairmanship 
of  the  national  committee  is  sought  by  ambitious  men  as 
much  as  the  highest  public  offices  in  our  government. 

We  have  been  speaking,  for  convenience,  as  if  there 
were  only  one  campaign  and  one  election  time  for  all 
Frequency  offices  in  OUT  government,  local,  state,  and 
of  elections  national.  This  is  not,  in  fact,  the  case.  The 
terms  are  not  the  same  length  for  all  offices.  The  Presi- 
dent and  the  Vice-President  are  elected  for  four  years, 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  for  two  years, 
judges  for  the  state  courts,  when  not  appointed,  for  from 
two  to  twenty-one  years,  governors  for  from  one  to  four 
years.  The  practice  in  the  United  States  is  to  make  the 
terms  of  office  short  in  order  to  give  the  people  a  chance 
frequently  to  express  their  approval  or  disapproval  of  the 
service  rendered  by  their  representatives.  The  frequency 
of  elections  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  many  cases 
local'  elections  are  held  at  different  times  from  national 
elections.  The  purpose  of  this  is  primarily  to  prevent  the 
confusion  of  local  with  national  questions.  At  times  of 
national  elections  attention  is  centered  so  completely  upon 
the  great  national  issues  and  the  election  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  land,  that  questions  of  purely  local  im- 
portance would  be  likely  to  be  neglected.     Besides,  local 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS    ITSELF         197 

questions  usually  have  nothing  to  do  with   the  divisions 
between  the  great  national  political  parties. 

Not  all  of  our  representatives   in   the  government  are 
chosen  by  a  direct  vote  of  the  people.     Although  the  gov- 
ernors of  all  states  are  now  so  chosen,  it  was  indirect 
once  the  common  practice  for  the  state  legisla-  election  of 

some  repre- 

tures  to  elect  them.  United  States  senators  sentativesof 
have  always  been  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  government 
their  respective  states  in  accordance  with  the  provision  of 
the  Constitution  (Art.  i,  sec.  3,  clause  i);  but  by  an 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  enacted  in  191 3,  the  sena- 
tors will  hereafter  be  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people 
of  their  respective  states. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides  that  the 
President  and  the  Vice-President  shall  be  elected  by  a 
group  of  men  from  each  state,  called  electors  (Art.  II,  sec.  i, 
clause  2;  Amendment  XII).  Each  state  may  appoint 
its  electors  in  any  manner  it  chooses.  Formerly  they 
were  appointed  by  the  state  legislatures ;  but  to-day  they 
are  elected  by  popular  vote  in  all  the  states.  When  the 
voters  go  to  the  polls  on  election  day  in  November,  they 
in  reality  cast  their  ballots  for  the  electors,  who  have  been 
nominated  in  the  state  convention,  and  not  for  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Vice-President  directly.  The  intention  of 
the  Constitution  was  that  the  electors  should  have  the 
choice  of  the  President  entirely  in  their  hands,  the  thought 
being  that  they  would  be  better  able  than  the  people  to 
select  a  capable  man  for  the  office.  Since  the  party 
system,  with  its  method  of  making  presidential  nomina- 
tions, has  arisen,  the  choice  by  the  electors  is  a  mere  form, 
for  they  invariably  vote  for  the  candidates  nominated  by 
their  parties. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  those  who  serve  the  peo- 


198  THE    COMMUNITY    AND   THE   CITIZEN 

pie  in  government  offices  are  not  elected  at  all,  but  are  ap- 
pointed by  various  executive  officers,  such  as  the  President, 
the  governors,  the  mayors  of   cities,  and  their 
mentof  subordinates.      It    would   be   impracticable   for 

officers  ^j^g  people  to  elect  all  the  thousands  of  officers 

and  employees  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
government.  It  is  deemed  better  to  elect  only  the  chief 
officials,  upon  whose  work  the  people,  can  keep  their  eyes 
with  comparative  ease,  and  to  hold  them  responsible,  not 
only  for  their  own  work,  but  also  for  the  work  of  all  those 
whom  they  appoint  to  subordinate  positions. 

We  have  said  that  government  is  the  servant,  and  not 
the  master,  of  the  people.     What,  then,  about  obedience  to 

^^     . .  the  government .''     Shall  masters  obey  their  serv- 

The  cibzen  °  ,  ^     .    .  . 

must  obey      ants  .-*    The  feeling  of  personal  responsibility  for 

the  govern-     ^^  condu.ct  of  community  affairs,  and  obedience, 

ment  as  the  -^  ' 

agent  of  the    are  two  of  the  most  essential  qualities  of  good 

community  citizenship.  The  government  represents  the 
community,  and  the  individual  is  called  on  to  obey  the 
government  as  the  agent  of  the  community.  When  the 
government  says  to  an  individual  that  he  must  do  this,  or 
that  he  must  not  do  that,  it  is  the  voice  of  the  people  speak- 
ing to  him  through  the  government.  It  was  William  Penn 
who  said:  ^^  Any  government  is  free  to  the  people  under  it 
where  the  lazvs  rule  and  the  people  are  a  party  to  those  lazus. 
Liberty  IV  it  ho  ut  obedience  is  confusion,  and  obedience  without 
liberty  is  slavery'' 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1 .  Review  together  in  class  the  preamble  of  the  Constitution,  notic- 
ing carefully  the  thought  and  the  language. 

2.  Discuss  direct  and  indirect  self-government.     Does  direct  self- 
government  exist  in  any  way  in  your  community  ? 

3.  Discuss  in  class  the  meaning  of  democracy ;  of  a  republic.     What 
other  forms  of  government  are  there  besides  republics  ? 


HOW   THE   COMMUNITY   GOVERNS    ITSELF         199 

4.  Discuss  the  meaning  of  a  federal  nation,  and  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment. 

5.  Study  the  powers  of  Congress  enumerated  in  Art.  I,  sec.  8,  of  the 
Constitution ;  the  powers  denied  to  tlie  states  in  Art.  I,  sec.  10. 

6.  Discuss  some  of  the  powers  that  may  be  exercised  by  both  state 
and  national  governments. 

7.  Discuss  in  class  how  the  relations  between  state  and  local  govern- 
ments differ  from  the  relations  between  state  and  national  governments. 

8.  Give  examples  of  how  the  locil  government  carries  out  the  pro- 
visions of  state  laws. 

9.  Give  e.xamples  of  some  of  the  laws  enacted  by  your  local  govern- 
ment. 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  our  representatives  live  in 
our  own  locality  ?     What  disadvantages  might  arise  from  this  custom  ? 

11.  What  are  the  qualifications  for  the  suffrage  in  yoUr  state?  Do 
you  tliink  that  the  suffrage  should  be  further  extended,  or  restricted? 

12.  Report  on  the  meaning  of  the  fit'teenth  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, and  the  historical  reason  for  its  enactment. 

13.  What  are  the  great  political  parties  of  to-day  ?  What  are  some 
of  the  questions  on  which  they  are  opposed  to  each  other  ? 

14.  Are  there,  or  have  there  been,  in  your  community  any  local 
political  parties  growing  out  of  local  questions  ? 

15.  How  are  nominations  made  in  your  community  ? 

16.  Describe  how  an  election  is  conducted  in  your  community. 
(Special  attention  should  be  given  to  this  while  an  election  is  in  process.) 

17.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  organization  in  your  community 
and  state  of  the  party  which  you  favor  (committees,  etc.). 

18.  Describe  methods  used  in  conducting  a  political  campaign. 

19.  What  is  the  method  of  electing  the  President  as  given  in  the 
Constitution,  Art.  II,  sec.  2,  and  Amendment  XII  ?  Discuss  in  class 
the  purpose  of  this  method,  and  how  the  method  actually  works. 

20.  How  many  persons  hold  government  positions  in  your  commu- . 
nity  ?     What  proportion  of  them  are  elected?     Appointed? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  III-V. 

Fonnan,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  II-VII,  X.  XI.  XIV,  XXX. 
XLV. 

Brvce,  "The  American  Commonwealth"  (last  edition),  vol.  I,  chap- 
ters XXVII,  XXVIII;  vol.  II,  chapters  LIII-LV ;  LIX,  LX.  LXVI, 
LXIX-LXXI  (abridged  edition,  chapters  XXVI,  XXVII,  LII-LIV). 

See  other  standard  text-books  on  civil  government. 


CHAPTER   XX 

HOW   OUR   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT   ARE 
CHANGING 

A  GREAT  many  changes  are  taking  place  in  our  methods 

of  self-government.     Some  of  them  are  due  to  the  fact 

„  .u  J  *  that  the  older  methods  do  not  always  work  as 
Methods  of  -' 

government  originally  intended.  Others  are  due  to  chang- 
change  ^^^   conditions  in    our  community    life,    which 

necessitate  corresponding  changes  in  the  governing  ma- 
chinery. Still  others  are  due  to  changes  in  our  ideas  of 
what  government  should  do  for  us.  Many  of  them  are  ex- 
perimental in  character  and  may  be  permanent  or  not  ac- 
cording as  they  prove,  in  the  course  of  time,  to  meet  real 
needs.  Such  experiments  are  often  tried  in  some  one 
locality,  or  state,  and  become  more  generally  adopted  only 
when  they  prove  successful.  In  general,  most  of  these 
changes  have  been  in  the  direction  of  giving  to  a  larger 
number  of  the  people  a  more  direct  part  in  government ; 
that  is,  in  the  direction  of  a  more  complete  democracy. 
At  the  same  time  their  aim  has  been  to  insure  better  gov- 
ernment by  the  people's  representatives. 

We  speak  of  our  government  as  a  government  by  the 
j^  .  ,  people.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  comparatively  few 
self-govern-  of  the  people  have  ever  taken  any  direct  part 
^^'^^  in    governing.     The    founders  of   our  national 

government  had  no  idea  of  giving  all  the  people  a  direct 
voice   in    their    government.     They  believed    that   safety 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT     201 

and  good  order  depended  on  keeping  the  control  of  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  the  most  competent  portion  of 
the  people.  We  have  seen  how  the  suffrage  was  originally 
restricted,  and  how  it  has  been  extended  only  by  very 
gradual  stages.  It  was  this  fear  of  the  masses  of  the 
people  that  led  the  makers  of  the  Constitution  to  adopt  the 
clumsy,  and  now  useless,  method  of  electing  the  President 
by  means  of  a  chosen  body  of  electors  (see  page  197). 

Many   citizens    have  lacked  sufficient   interest  to  take 
part   in   government   as    much    as   they    could,   g  ^_ 
They  do  in  this  as  they  are  inclined  to  do  in  emment  de- 
other  matters:   having  employed   some  one  to  ™v*e° interest 
look  after  the  business  of  government  for  them,  of  aiiciti- 
they  feel  relieved  of  all   responsibility.     If  we 
are  to  be  a  really  self-governing  people,  each  citizen  must 
take  an  active  part. 

There  are  only  a  few  ways  in  which  most  citizens  can 
take  actual  part  in  governing,  but  these  are  very  important. 
Not  many  citizens  can  hold  office.  In  a  self-  The  duty  of 
governing  community  it  is  the  duty  of  a  citizen,  taking  office 
as  well  as  a  privilege,  to  take  office  when  the  community 
calls  upon  him.  It  may  seem  unnecessary  to  emphasize 
this,  for  usually  there  are  more  men  who  want  office  than 
there  are  offices  to  fill.  The  trouble  is  that  the  men  who 
seek  office  do  not  always  make  the  best  officers.  The  men 
who  will  look  after  the  community  business  best  are  most 
often  men  who  have  large  interests  of  their  own.  The 
wide-awai<e  community  that  is  fully  alive  to  its  best  inter- 
ests will  usually  look  among  these  busy,  successful  men 
and  say  to  one  of  them,  "You  are  capable,  honest,  and 
successful  in  managing  your  own  affairs ;  we  want  you  to 
help  manage  the  community's  affairs  in  office."  Unfortu- 
nately such   men  too  often  shrink  from  the  burdens  and 


202  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

cares  of  office,  or  from  giving  up  the  necessary  time  from 
their  own  business.  Patriotism  to  one's  community  calls 
for  just  such  sacrifices. 

The  same  lack  of  patriotism  is  shown  in  a  smaller  way 
by  a  larger  number  of  citizens  who  make  all  manner  of 
Patriotism  in  excuses  to  avoid  public  service  of  various  kinds, 
jury  service  j^  good  example  of  this  is  in  jury  service.  Every 
person  accused  of  crime  or  sued  at  law  has  the  right  to 
trial  before  a  jury  of  his  fellow-citizens  (Constitution, 
Amendm'ents  VI  and  VII).  Nearly  every  man  may  be 
called  upon  to  serve  on  a  jury,  and  he  is  shirking  an  im- 
portant responsibility  if,  without  good  cause,  he  seeks  to 
avoid  it.  There  are  some  classes  of  men  who  are  regularly 
and  properly  excused  from  jury  service,  such  as  physicians. 
Other  men  may,  at  times,  have  a  valid  excuse  for  not 
serving.  The  fact  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  get  jurymen 
from  the  best  classes  of  citizens  often  results  in  juries  of 
idlers  and  ignorant  men.  One  of  the  strongest  safeguards 
against  injustice  is  thus  weakened. 

The  paying  of  taxes  is  a  most  important  way  of  taking 
part  in  the  government.  All  citizens  who  have  property 
Patriotism  ^^^  taxed  to  help  pay  the  expense  of  govern- 
in  paying  ment.  It  is  surprising  to  find  how  many  citi- 
*"®^  zens    endeavor    to    avoid    paying    their    share 

toward  sustaining  the  government  in  its  work  for  them. 

Another  way  of  taking  part  in  government  is  by  voting 
for  the  nomination  and  election  of  officers.  Thousands  of 
Patriotism  voters  fail  to  register  or  to  cast  their  votes, 
in  voting  throwing  away  the  privilege  of  self-government, 
and  allowing  others  to  govern  them.  This  is  especially 
true  at  the  primaries  held  to  elect  delegates  to  the  nomi- 
nating conventions.  The  choice  of  good  men  for  the 
highest  offices  in  the  land,  even  the  President,  depends  on 


CHANGING    METHODS    OF    SELF-GOVERNMENT     203 

the    choice   of   good   men   at   these   primaries.     Yet   it   is 
notorious  that  the  primaries  are  poorly  attended. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  One  is  that  men 
feel  too  busy  to  leave  their  work,  or  they  consider  the 
election    of    delegates    and    the   nomination   of 

,      ^  .  ,         ,     .       .  Why  men 

local  officers  too  unimportant  to  take  their  time,   donotat- 
Another  reason  voters   give  for  not  attending  ^^^^  ^^ 

....      primaries 

the  primaries  is  that  they  are  unacquainted  with 
the  candidates  for  nomination  or  election,  and  therefore 
cannot  vote  intelligently.  In  large  communities  where 
men  do  not  know  all  their  neighbors,  it  is  difficult  for  the 
ordinary  busy  citizen  to  keep  informed  in  regard  to  the 
merits  of  the  various  candidates.  If  a  citizen  is  sufficiently 
interested,  and  does  not  wait  until  a  day  or  two  before  the 
primary  to  inform  himself,  it  is  usually  possible  for  him  to 
enlighten  himself  sufficiently  to  cast  his  vote  wisely.  This 
excuse  is  often  an  admission  of  flagging  interest  in  what 
is  going  on  in  the  community  during  the  time  between 
elections.  In  many  of  our  cities  there  are  associations  of 
citizens  which  publish,  before  election  time,  the  names  of 
the  candidates  of  all  parties  with  a  sketch  of  their  records 
as  citizens  and  public  servants. 

At  the  primaries  in  New  York  City  in  191 2  a  ballot 
fourteen  feet  long  was  used,  containing  590  names. 
While  this  is  an  extreme  case,  it  illustrates  the  xhe  short 
difficulty  which  the  conscientious  voter  faces  ballot 
when  he  tries  to  vote  intelligently.  In  order  to  remove 
this  difficulty  a  movement  has  been  gaining  headway  in 
favor  of  a  s/^crt  ballot.  As  the  name  indicates,  the  plan 
is  to  reduce  the  number  of  names  to  be  voted  for  to  a  very 
brief  list.  The  chief  means  of  accomplishing  this  is  by 
having  only  the  most  important  officials  elected  by  the 
people,  leaving  the  less  important  ones  to  be   appointed 


204  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

by  those  elected.  The  few  elective  officials  would  thus 
stand  out  prominently  before  the  voters,  and  could  be 
held  responsible  by  the  people  for  the  appointment  of 
capable  subordinates.  This  plan  not  only  makes  it 
easier  for  the  voter  to  vote  intelligently,  but  also  tends  to 
secure  more  capable  men  in  office. 

Another  thing  that  has  kept  many  voters  away  from 
the  primaries  of  the  old  type  is  the  feeling  that  their  votes 
_  .      .  have  no  real  influence,  either  because  of  unfair 

Pnmanes  ' 

controlled  treatment  at  the  primaries,  or  because  the  ac- 
by  a  ew  ^-^^^  ^£  ^j^^  primary  and  of  the  later  nominating 
convention  is  determined  beforehand  by  a  few  party 
leaders.  Even  these  are  not  sufficient  reasons.  By  stay- 
ing away  the  timid  voters  abandon  the  fight,  before  it  is 
begun,  to  the  small  but  wide-awake  group  of  politicians, 
who  can  therefore  run  things  as  they  please,  whether  for 
good  or  for  ill.  Nomination  of  all  candidates  by  direct 
vote  of  the  people  (see  page  193)  largely  removes  this  excuse 
of  the  voter  for  not  taking  interest  in  the  primaries,  since 
it  gives  him  a  real  voice  in  the  choice  of  candidates,  and 
increases  the  probability  of  nominating  acceptable  men. 

This  brings  us  to  some  of  the  dangers  to  self-govern- 
ment resulting  from  the  way  in  which  political  parties  are 
organized  and  managed. 

Political  parties  are  unavoidable  under  a  form  of  gov- 
ernment like  ours.  They  are  the  means  of  securing  united 
^  ,     action  among  the  voters  who  think  alike.     A 

Dangers  of  » 

the  party  voter  cannot  accomplish  much  unless  he  belongs 
spmt  ^Q  ^  party  and  works  and  votes  with  it.     Yet  it 

must  be  remembered  that  a  party  is  merely  a  means  to  ac- 
complish a  result,  and  not  in  itself  a  sacred  thing.  The 
purpose  of  a  party  should  be  to  secure  good  government 
for  all  the  people.     The  words  of  Washington  in  his  Fare- 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT     20$ 

well  Address  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  pa- 
triotic American  citizen.  He  said:  "The  spirit  [of  party], 
unfortunately,  is  inseparable  from  our  nature,  having  its 
root  in  the  strongest  passions  of  the  human  mind.  It 
exists  under  different  shapes  in  all  governments,  more  or 
less  stifled,  controlled,  or  repressed ;  but  in  those  of  the 
popular  form  it  is  seen  in  its  greatest  rankness,  and  is  truly 
their  worst  enemy.  The  alternate  domination  of  one  faction 
over  another,  sharpened  by  the  spirit  of  revenge  natural 
to  party  dissensions  .  .  .  is  itself  a  frightful  despotism.  .  .  . 
The  common  and  continual  mischiefs  of  the  spirit  of  party 
are  sufficient  to  make  it  the  interest  and  duty  of  a  wise 
people  to  discourage  and  restrain  it." 

To  secure  united  action  among  the  members  of  a  party 
there  must  be  organization  under  the  direction  of  leaders. 
Each  city  ward  has  its  leader,  or  leaders,  who 

.  .  ....  The  party 

gam  their  position  through  their  ability  to  influ-  machine, 
ence  the  voters  of  the  ward   and  to  hold   them  "°8^  ^°*^ 

bosses 

together.  These  ward  leaders  are  under  the 
authority  of  a  leader,  or  group  of  leaders,  for  the  whole 
city.  If  one  leader  gains  great  influence  over  the  party 
in  the  city,  or  in  the  state,  he  is  called  a  boss.  This  or- 
ganization extends  throughout  the  nation,  with  branches 
in  every  community.  The  organization  is  often  called  the 
niachijte,  the  group  of  leaders  controlling  the  machine 
is  a  political  ring;  and  the  boss  is  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  all,  his  influence  sometimes  being  limited  to  a 
city,  or  extending  over  a  state  or  even  the  whole  nation. 
These   names  —  machine,    ring,    and    boss  — 

Till  .  •  .^1  1       Party  man- 

were  apphed  by  the  party  s  enemies.     They  do  agement 

not  necessarily  mean  anything  bad.     A  machine  ^°^  selfish 

/.u    .  •  ^        .        .      {  .        ^  ,     ,  ends 

(that  IS,  an  organization)  is  necessary,  and  there 

must  be  bosses,  or  leaders.     The  evil  connected  with  these 


206  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

things   arises  from  the  fact  that  the  machine  sometimes 

falls  into  the  hands  of  ambitious,  but  unscrupulous,  bosses 

and  rings,  who  manage  the  party  merely  for  the  party's 

sake,  or  what  is  worse,  for  their  own  selfish  ends. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  bosses  and  rings  are  them- 

_  .  ^  selves  under  the  domination  of  wealthy  corpora- 
Domination  -'        ^ 

of  wealthy      tions   which   are  seeking  to  secure   legislation 

corporations    favorable  to  their  own  interests.     In  such  cases 

the  people  are  not  their  own  governors,  but  are  subject  to 

the  domination  of  the  corporations. 

The  leaders  of  a  party  use  various  methods  to  maintain 

their   control  over   the  voters,  and  over  the    subordinate 

leaders.     Sometimes  they  do  it  by  argument  and 
How  the  .  .,,-'*'., 

party  main-    persuasion,  sometmics  by  threats,  sometimes  by 

tains  control  promises  of  reward,  and  sometimes  by  actual 
over  voters 

bribery.     A  common  method  is  to  hold  before 

the  party  worker  the  promise  of  reward  by  appointment 
to  some  office  of  government. 

,^  It  was  formerly  customary  for  each  party  to  have  its 
ticket  (list  of  candidates)  printed  separately  and  usually 
Secrecy  of  o^i  paper  of  different  color  from  that  of  other 
the  baUot  party  ballots.  It  was  then  easy  for  watchers 
to  see  how  each  man  voted,  and  he  could  be  held  to 
account  if  he  did  not  vote  as  expected.  This  method 
of  controlling  a  man's  vote  was  prevented  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Australian  ballot,  which  contains  the  names 
of  the  candidates  of  all  parties  on  a  single  sheet.  Each 
voter  receives  one  of  these  from  the  election  officers  at  the 
polls,  and  retires  alone  into  a  booth  where  he  marks  the 
names  of  the  candidates  for  whom  he  wishes  to  vote,  un- 
seen by  any  one.  The  secrecy  of  his  ballot  gives  him 
greater  independence.  A  more  recent  innovation  is  the 
voting  machine,  a  mechanical  device  by  means  of  which 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT     207 

the  voter  registers  his  vote  by  operating  a  set  of  levers. 
The  vote  is  registered  and  counted  at  one  time  by  the 
machine,  thus  reducing  the  chance  of  fraud. 

Where  the  people  are  divided  into  parties,  it  is  of  course 
the  opinions  and  policies  of  the  victorious  party  that  will 
be  carried  out  by  the  government.  The  de-  Maority  or 
feated  party  or  parties  must  yield  to  the  victors,  minority 
We  often  say  that  in  a  democratic  form  of  gov-  ^^  ^ 
ernment  the  majority  rules.  But  where  there  are  more 
than  two  political  parties,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  the 
United  States,  no  one  of  the  parties  may  include  a  ma- 
jority of  the  people ;  the  two  or  more  defeated  parties 
may  together  include  many  more  people  than  the  one  vic- 
torious party.  In  such  cases,  which  are  very  common,  it 
is  a  minority  that  rules,  and  the  majority  that  has  to  yield. 
But  whether  it  is  the  representatives  of  the  majority  or  of 
the  minority  that  administer  the  government,  they  should 
not  forget  that  while  they  arc  in  power  they  should  govern 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  interest  of  a//  the  people. 
The  defeated  parties  should  always  have  a  means  of  ex- 
pressing their  views  in  the  councils  of  government,  and 
their  views  should  be  given  every  possible  consideration. 

One  plan  to  secure  this  result  is  that  of  proportional 
representation  in  legislative  bodies,  such  as  state  legisla- 
tures and  city  councils.  By  this  plan  several  p  rti  al 
representatives  are  elected  from  each  election  representa- 
district,  and  these  are  divided  proportionally  **°° 
among  the  parties.  Thus,  if  the  parties  are  of  equal 
strength  in  a  given  district,  they  will  have  an  equal  num- 
ber of  representatives  ;  if  one  is  twice  as  strong  as  another, 
it  will  have  twice  as  many  representatives  as  the  other. 
The  important  thing  is  that  each  political  group  secures 
fair  representation  in  the  legislative  body. 


208  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Another  plan  by  which  to  secure  elections  that  are  in 
closer  accord  with  the  will  of  the  majority  of  voters  is  that 
Preferential  o^  preferential  voting.  This  plan,  which  has 
voting  been  adopted  in  some  localities,  is  used  where 

one  of  several  candidates  is  to  be  elected  to  a  single  ad- 
ministrative office.  It  is  somewhat  complicated  in  detail, 
and  in  fact  there  are  various  methods  by  which  the  plan 
is  carried  out.  In  general,  however,  it  is  a  plan  by  which 
each  voter,  in  addition  to  indicating  his  first  choice  for  the 
office,  may  mark  the  other  candidates  in  the  order  of  his 
preference  ;  so  that,  if  it  proves  that  his  first  choice  cannot 
be  elected,  his  second  choice  may  be  taken  into  account; 
or,  if  that  fails,  his  third  choice,  and  so  on. 

Besides  these  devices  to  give  the  people  greater  control 
over  the  choice  of  their  representatives,  there  are  still 
others  by  which  these  representatives  may  be 
more  completely  controlled  after  they  are  elected. 
One  of  these  is  known  as  the  recall.  This  is  a  method  by 
which  the  people  may  remove  an  elective  official  from 
office  before  his  term  expires.  If  a  number  of  citizens 
believe  that  an  official  is  not  properly  fulfilling  the  obliga- 
tions of  his  office,  a  petition  signed  by  a  specified  number 
of  voters  will  necessitate  an  election  to  determine  whether 
the  official  shall  remain  in  office  or  be  supplanted  by 
another.  Elective  officials  are  thus  made  more  directly  re- 
sponsible to  the  people  for  their  acts.  The  recall  has  been 
used  in  a  good  -many  western  communities  for  the  removal 
of  mayors,  city  councilmen,  school  directors,  and  others. 

The  people  are  also  acquiring  a  more  direct  control 
over  the  making  of  the  laws.  They  always  had  the  right, 
except  in  Delaware,  to  vote  on  proposed  amendments  to 
the  state  constitutions ;  and  by  the  town  meeting  plan 
(see  page  218)  they  have  themselves  made  laws  to  regulate 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT     209 

local  affairs.  But  in  recent  years  a  number  of  states  and 
a  great  many  local  communities  have  extended  the  direct 
action  of  the  people  in  law-making  by  means  of  the  initia- 
tive and  the  rcferoidiun. 

The  initiative  is  the  right  of  the  voters  to  initiate,  or 
start,  legislation.  By  means  of  it  a  specified  number  of 
voters  may  themselves,  by  petition,  propose  a  initiative 
law ;  and  if  the  legislature  does  not  act  upon  it,  and 
it  must  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  their  vote  '®  ^^^^  "™ 
at  the  next  election.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  legislature 
passes  a  law  that  is  not  pleasing  to  a  considerable  number 
of  the  people,  a  petition  signed  by  a  specified  number  of 
voters  will  require  the  law  to  be  referred  to  the  people  for 
their  approval  or  rejection.  This  is  the  referendum. 
The  object  of  the  initiative  and  the  referendum  is  to  force 
legislative  bodies  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  the 
people  whom  they  represent ;  or,  if  they  do  not  do  so,  to 
overrule  them. 

These  means  of  direct  law-making  are  now  in  use  in 
many  localities,  and  are  spreading.     The  chief  arguments 
against  them   are   that  our  state  governments  Arguments 
were   intended    to   be    representative   and   not  ^^^  ^"^^ 

against 

direct,  and  that  the  people  as  a  whole  are  not  direct 
sufficiently  informed  to  vote  intelligently  upon  legislation 
important  laws.  In  reply  to  this  it  is  said  that  it  is  not 
expected  that  the  people  will  exercise  the  power  of  law- 
making except  in  cases  where  the  legislative  bodies  fail 
to  represent  them  faithfully,  and  that  the  legislatures  will 
be  more  considerate  of  the  will  of  the  people  in  view  of 
the  power  possessed  by  the  latter  to  overrule  therii.  It  is 
said,  further,  that  in  a  democratic  form  of  government 
the  people  ought  to  be  informed  regarding  important 
public  questions  with  which  their  legislatures  are  deaUng, 


2IO  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

and  that  this  is  more  likely  to  be  the  case  if  they  know 
that  they  may  be  called  upon  to  deal  with  these  questions 
directly  at  asy  time.  In  order  to  provide  every  possible 
means  for  inteUigent  action  by  the  people,  it  is  the  practice 
in  some  states  where  the  initiative  and  referendum  prevail, 
to  circulate  printed  copies  of  proposed  laws  with  a  state- 
ment of  all  important  arguments  on  both  sides. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  offices  of  government 
are  filled  by  appointment  and  not  by  election.  These  ap- 
The  civil  pointive  places  constitute  the  civil  service, 
service  There  are  about  three  hundred  thousand  such 

offices  or  positions  under  the  national  government,  and  prob- 
ably as  many  more  under  the  state  and  local  governments. 
It  is  necessary  that  some  of  the  more  important  of  these 
offices  should  be  filled  by  men  who  will  sympathize  with 
the  poHcy  of  the  government  as  indicated  by  the  party  in 
power,  as  in  the  positions  of  the  cabinet  officers  who  are 
advisors  with  the  President  and  carry  out  his  policy. 
There  are,  however,  some  offices  in  which  party  feeling 
should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  at  all,  as  in  the  case  of 
judges  of  our  courts.  Their  business  is  to  interpret  the 
law  and  to  render  justice,  which  is  always  the  same  under 
any  party.  There  ar'e  many  thousands  of  other  offices,  or 
government  positions,  in  which  a  man's  party  beliefs  would 
make  no  difference  in  the  performance  of  his  duty,  as  in 
the  case  of  postmen  and  mail  clerks. 

It  early  became  the  practice  of  a  victorious  party  to  dis- 
miss many  members  of  the  defeated  party  who  were  hold- 
The  spoils  ^^S  government  positions,  and  to  fill  their  places 
system  with  its  own  members.     This  plan  began  in  the 

national  government  under  Andrew  Jackson,  and  is  known 
as  the  spoils  system,  because  it  was  founded  on  the  princi- 
ple that  "to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils." 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF    SELF-GOVERNMENT     211 

The  spoils  system  brought  with  it  a  train  of  evils.     The 
changes  made  in  the  civil  service  with  each  change  of  ad- 
ministration were  injurious  to  the  efficiency  of  covern- 
the    service.     The  worst   evil  was  the  habit  it  ment  offices 

are  posts 

cultivated  of  looking  upon  the  offices  of  govern-  of  service, 
ment  as  booty,  to  be  sought  for,  and  even  fought  not  a  reward 
for,  as  rewards  for  party  sn-^oice.  The  man  who  works 
for  a  party  merely  for  what  he  can  get  out  of  it  in  the 
shape  of  a  salaried  office  is  not  a  safe  man  for  the  people 
to  put  their  confidence  in  as  their  representative  in  gov- 
ernment. 

A  great  deal  has  been  done  in  the  last  few  years  to  de- 
stroy the  spoils  system  of  making  appointments  to  office. 
In   1 88s  a  civil  service  law  was  passed,  and  a 

^  1  1       y-  ^^^  ment 

Civil  Service  Commission  created  by  Congress,   system  in 
for   the  purpose  of  improving  conditions.     By  t^«  ^}^'^ 
this  act  a  merit  system  of  making  appointments 
was  introduced.     By  the  merit  system,  candidates  for  the 
civil  service  must  pass  a  competitive  examination  to  show 
fitness,  and  when  appointed,  they  hold  office  during  good 
behavior.     At  first  this  system  was  applied  to  only  a  few 
of  the  offices,  but  the  number  of  offices  in  which  it  oper- 
ates has  steadily  increased,  until  to-day  more  than  half  of 
the  national  offices  are  subject  to  it.     The  merit  system 
of  appointment  has  been  adopted  also  in  some  states  and 
cities. 

One  of  the   most  promising  of    the    changes  that  are 
taking  place  in  our  methods  of  self-government  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  increasing  effort  to  fill  all  positions  j^eed  for 
in    the   government  service  with   persons  who  business 
are    trained   in  the  kind   of  work   they  are   to  °^^ 
perform,    and   are    capable    of    applying    good    business 
methods  to  the  public  business.     Although  dishonesty  and 


212  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

corruption  have  been  too  frequent,  a  far  more  prevalent 
cause  of  bad  government  has  been  the  simple  lack  of 
business  methods  and  good  management. 

Various  agencies  are  now  at  work  studying  the  work 
and  methods  of  the  many  departments  and  offices  of 
government  with  a  view  to  discovering  how  they  may  be 
conducted  more  economically  and  more  efficiently.  In 
some  of  our  cities  there  are  "  bureaus  of  municipal  re- 
search "  for  this  purpose.  Their  attention  has  been 
directed  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  methods  of  city  gov- 
ernment, but  they  are  now  extending  their  activities  to 
include  county,  state,  and  national  governments.  Largely 
through  the  influence  of  such  private  agencies,  govern- 
ments themselves  are  beginning  to  provide  means  for 
self-study.  Thus,  the  department  of  education  in  New 
York  City  has  created  a  bureau  of  investigation  to  work 
constantly  for  more  effective  methods  of  attending  to  the 
enormous  business  of  the  public  schools  of  that  city.  The 
federal  government  has  a  commission  to  study  and  im- 
prove its  methods  of  keeping  accounts  and  handling  its 
routine  business. 

In  some  foreign  countries  the  public  service  offers 
careers  for  which  young  men  go  into  training,  as  they 
P  bii  -  would  go  into  training  for  the  practice  of  law, 
vice  as  a  or  medicine,  or  business.  In  our  country  the 
career  feeling   has    seemed    to    prevail    that    not  only 

has  every  citizen  a  right  to  hold  office,  but  that  he  is 
competent  to  do  so  if  he  has  sufficient  influence  to 
secure  an  election  or  an  appointment.  This  idea  is 
changing,  and  the  time  is  apparently  coming  when,  in  this 
country  also,  the  public  service  will  offer  an  honorable 
career  to  be  prepared  for  by  systematic  training,  or  by  ex- 
perience in  similar  kinds  of  work,  or  both.     A  number  of 


CHANGING   METHODS   OF   SELF-GOVERNMENT     213 

our  universities  now  have  departments  to  provide  such 
training  for  young  men,  and  other  agencies  with  a  similar 
purpose  are  growing  up.  Trained  service  in  all  depart- 
ments of  the  public  business  cannot  be  expected,  however, 
unless  there  is  a  public  demand  for  it.  The  people  them- 
selves must  recognize  the  need  for  it  and  insist  upon 
having  it. 

This  chapter  has  shown  how  the  voters,  who  have  been 
inclined  to  throw  all  responsibility  for  government  upon 
their  representatives,  are  taking  upon  themselves  Rggpongi- 
more  and  n\ore  direct  responsibility.  In  like  biiity  of  the 
manner,  citizens  who  cannot  vote  are  inclined 
to  throw  all  responsibility  upon  those  who  can.  There 
are  many  ways  in  which  the  non-voting  citizen  may  help 
to  improve  the  methods  of  government,  but  chief  among 
these  is  by  keeping  thoroughly  informed  regarding  the 
community  needs,  how  they  may  best  be  met,  and  how 
government  actually  does  meet  them,  or  fails  to  meet  them. 
One  reason  for  the  need  of  information  on  the  part  of 
non-voters  is  that  they  have  many  opportunities  to  work 
with  private  organizations  in  the  interest  of  public  needs, 
such  as  the  public  health,  public  safety,  education,  and 
so  on,  and  through  such  organizations  to  bring  direct 
pressure  to  bear  upon  government.  Another  reason  is 
that  many  of  these  non-voters  may  soon  have  the  power 
to  vote,  and  should  be  prepared  to  exercise  the  power 
effectively.  A  third  reason,  and  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant, is  that  an  employee  is  stimulated  to  do  his  best 
work  when  he  knows  that  his  employer  is  interested  in 
and  thoroughly  understands  his  work.  Lack  of  interest  on 
the  part  of  the  employer  breeds  lack  of  interest  and  incom 
petency  on  the  part  of  the  employee.  The  best  reason 
the  citizen  has  for  knowing  about  his  government  is  be- 


214  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE    CITIZEN 

cause  of  the  effect  that  his  possession  of  that  knowledge 
has  upon  those  who  administer  his  business  in  government. 
Perhaps  the  chief  defects  of  our  system  of  self-govern- 
ment may  be  summarized  as  those  which  prevent  the  citizen 
from  really  having  a  voice  in  his  own  govern- 
arTgettlng  ment,  and  those  which  prevent  the  choice  of 
better,  not      ^^q^i  most  competent  and  most  trustworthy  to 

worse 

hold  office  and  administer  our  affairs.  These 
defects  were  not  anticipated  when  oiir  governments  were 
first  formed,  but  have  developed  with  the  increasing  com- 
plexity of  our  communities  until  they  have  in  some  cases 
become  acute  and  cause  patriotic  citizens  some  anxiety. 
We  must  not,  however,  get  a  wrong  impression  of  the 
situation.  Any  plan,  however  excellent,  is  bound  to  mis- 
carry at  times  when  it  is  in  the  hands  of  imperfect  human 
beings.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  our  plan  of  govern- 
ment is  wrong  because  it  is  sometimes  wrongly  used. 
Neither  must  it  be  supposed  that  it  is  wrongly  used  in  the 
hands  of  all  officers.  Instead,  we  have  great  reason  to  be 
hopeful  that  the  defects  in  our  government  will  disappear. 
We  can  feel  assured  that  the  great  majority  of  the  people 
will  do  right  when  they  see  the  right,  and  that  there  are 
to-day  many  honest  and  patriotic  leaders  who  are  earnestly 
striving  to  give  the  people  the  best  that  government  can 
secure.  Conditions  are  not  getting  worse,  but  better.  If 
we  see  more  corruption  to-day  than  formerly,  it  is  rather 
because  we  are  opening  our  eyes,  and  are  striving  more 
earnestly  to  uproot  the  evils. 

FOR   INVESTIGATION 

1.  Discuss  in  class  the  question  whether  we  are  a  democracy  or 
an  oligarchy. 

2.  Why  is  holding  ofiSce  a  duty?     Why  is  it  a  privilege? 


CHANGING   METHODS/ Oil'   SELF-GOVERNMENT     21  5 

/    ; 

3.  PJ'ow  are  jurymen  selecte'd?  '  What  will  debar  a  man  from  serv- 
ing on  a  jury  ?  What  would  you  consider  a  good  excuse  for  an  ordinary 
business  man's  not  serving  when  called  on? 

4.  Are  the  primaries  in  your  community  well  attended?  Try  to 
find  out  the  reasons  for  non-attendance  from  some  of  the  men  of  your 
acquaintance. 

5.  Is  there  any  organization  in  your  community  that  tries  to  inform 
the  people  of  the  records  and  character  of  the  candidates  for  nomina- 
tion and  election?  Why  might  it  be  difficult  to  get  reliable  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  these  matters? 

6.  Have  any  laws  been  passed  recently  in  your  slate  for  the  reform 
of  the  primaries?     What  are  the  main  features  of  these  new  laws? 

7.  Study  those  parts  of  Washington's  Farewell  Address  that  deal 
with  political  parties.     Discuss  carefully  his  meaning. 

8.  Investigate  the  methods  of  conducting  primaries  in  the  worst 
districts  of  large  cities.  Where  are  they  held?  How  are  they  man- 
aged?    Are  similar  methods  used  anywhere  in  your  own  city? 

9.  What  per  cent  of  the  qualified  voters  in  your  city  (or  counfy) 
voted  at  the  last  election? 

ID.  How  many  names  to  be  voted  for  were  on  the  county  ticket  of 
the  party  you  favor  at  the  last  election  ?  On  the  city  ticket  ?  On  the 
state  ticket? 

11.  What  do  men  of  your  acquaintance  think  of  the  desirability  of 
a  short  ballot  in  your  community?     Give  their  arguments. 

12.  If  proportional  representation  exists  in  your  community  or  state, 
discuss  it  in  detail.  Also,  preferential  voting,  the  recall,  the  initiative 
and  the  referendum. 

13.  Report  on  the  application  of  the  spoils  system  under  Jackson's 
administration. 

14.  Report  on  the  history  of  civil  service  reform. 

15.  Is  the  merit  system  of  appointment  used  in  your  state? 

16.  Is  the  merit  system  of  appointment  used  in  your  city  govern- 
ment?    How  does  it  work? 

17.  Are  voting  machines  used  in  your  community?  How  do  they 
work  ? 

REFERENCES 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  chapters  LXIII- 
LXV,    LXVII,    LXVIII;    LXXXVIII,    LXXXIX ;    XCVII.  XCVIII. 

Roosevelt.  "Essays  on  Practical  Politics,"  "American  Ideals  and 
Other  Essays."  Also,  "What  Americanism  Means,''  Forum,  17  :  196- 
206. 


2l6  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

Allen,  William  H. :  '"Woman's  Part  in  Government."  (Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.,  191 1.) 

The  magazine  Equity,  published  quarterly  at  1520  Chestnut  Street, 
Philadelphia,  is  devoted  to  the  "  promotion  of  improvements  in  govern- 
ment, especially  of  those  methods  that  will  result  in  a  more  perfect 
democracy."  It  explains  and  gives  the  current  record  of  such  subjects 
as  the  initiative  and  referendum,  the  recall,  direct  primaries,  propor- 
tional representation,  etc.  The  January  number,  191 3,  is  particularly 
good. 

The  American  Proportional  Representation  League  (Secretary,  C.  G. 
Hoag,  Haverford,  Pa.)  publishes  pamphlets  relating  to  this  subject. 
They  are  rather  technical. 

The  National  Short  Ballot  Organization,  383  Fourth  Avenue,  New 
York,  issues  numerous  publications. 

The  Legislative  Reference  Bureau,  Montpelier,  Vt.,  in  1914  issued 
a  pamphlet  on  Direct  Primaries.  It  contains  a  tabulation  of  argu- 
ments both  for  and  against. 

Bureaus  of  Municipal  Research  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Cincin- 
nati, and  other  cities,  issue  useful  publications  on  efficiency  in  city  gov- 
ernment. 

For  civil  service  reform  see  : 

Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commission,  pp.  489-502, 
for  an  account  of  the  growth  of  civil  service  reform.    Also  later  reports. 

Roosevelt,  "An  Object  Lesson  in  Civil  Service  Reform,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  67: 
252-257;  "  Present  Status  of  Civil  Service  Reform,"  Atlantic  Monthly,  75:  239-246; 
"Six  Years  of  Civil  Service  Refoim,"  Scribner's  Magazine,  18:  238-247  (also  in 
"  American  Ideals  and  Other  Essays  "). 

The  spoils  system  under  Jackson,  McMaster,  "  History  of  the  People 
of  the  United  States,"'  vol.  V,  pp.  523-536. 

Ballot  Reform,  Johnson's  Encyclopedia. 

Electoral  Reform,  New  International  Encyclopedia. 

Elections,  Encyclopedia  Americana. 

See  also  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  on  the  various 
topics  of  the  chapter. 


^/ 


/ 


CHAPTER   XXI 


THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   RURAL   COMMUNITIES:   TOWN- 
SHIP  AND   COUNTY 

The  English  colonists  who  settled  in  America  were 
familiar  with  forms  of  both  national  and  local  government 
in  England.  Their  removal  to  America  did  not  at  first 
change  their  national  government  in  any  way,  for  the 
English  government  remained  theirs.  To  meet  their  local 
needs,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  necessary  to  establish  some 
form  of  local  government  in  this  country.  In  doing  so,  it 
was  natural  that  they  should  imitate  the  forms  with  which 
they  had  been  familiar  in  England. 

In  the  early  times  of  English  history  the  smallest  politi- 
cal division  of  the  land  was  the  toiv7i,  which,  in  those  days, 
consisted  of  a  palisaded  village  with  surrounding 
farm  and  pasture  land ;  it  was  governed  by  a  township 

meeting  of  the  men  of  the  town,  or  town  mcctijio;.   *°<^  *°w^ 

meeting 
In  the  troublous  course  of  early  English  history, 

these   towns   lost    their  right   of   direct   self-government. 

Meanwhile  another  division  of  the  land  had  appeared  for 

purposes  of  cJuircJi  gove^mment.     This  was  thQpaj'is/i,  which 

was  under  the  control  of  the  parish  priest.     The  parish 

usually  coincided  in  area  with  the  older  town.     The  people 

of  the  parish  met  in  a  vestry  meeting;  to  assess  the  church 

rates  for  church  expenses  and  the  care  of  the  poor.     As 

the  powers  of  the  town  meeting  declined,  the  vestry  meeting 

gradually  assumed  them,  until  it  became  really  the  same 

thing  as  the  older  town  meeting. 

217 


2i8  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

When  the  Puritans  left  England  because  of  restrictions 

on  their  religious  liberty,  they  went  in  congregations ;  and 

Wh   the       when  they  settled  in  Massachusetts,  they  settled 

township       in  little  palisaded  communities  around  the  church, 

system  was  Under  these  conditions  it  was  natural  that  the 
adopted  in 

New  Eng-  New  England  colonists  should  adopt  the  town, 
^^  or  parish,  form  of  government  with  which  they 

were  famihar.  Each  little  community,  including  the  village 
and  the  surrounding  farms,  was  called  a  town,  or  township, 
The  town  ^^^  ^as  governed  by  a  meeting  of  all  the  freemen 
meeting  (landholders)  who  belonged  to  the  church.  This 
meeting  was  called  the  town  meeting.  It  originally  met  in 
the  church,  but  afterward  in  the  tozvn  Jiouse.  It  levied 
taxes  for  church  purposes,  to  provide  for  the  poor,  and 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  government.  It  provided  for  a 
school.  It  authorized  the  construction  and  repair  of  roads 
and  bridges.  The  laws  enacted  by  the  town  meeting  were 
called  by-laws,  which  means  town  laws. 

For  the  execution  of  the  by-laws  it  was  necessary  for 
the  town  meeting  to  elect  officers.  First  of  all,  there  were 
Town  from  three  to  nine  selectmen,  the  number  vary- 

officers  ing  with  the  size  of  the  township.     They  had 

general  supervision  over  all  community  business.  They 
represented  the  town  when  the  town  meeting  was  not  in 
session,  and  called  the  town  meeting  when  necessary.  The 
town  clerk  kept  the  records  of  the  business  of  the  town. 
The  town  treasurer  received  the  taxes  of  the  people,  and 
paid  the  expenses  of  the  community.  There  were  tax 
assessors,  who  determined  the  amount  of  tax  each  citizen 
must  pay,  and  overseers  of  the  poor.  The  constable  served 
warrants  issued  by  the  selectmen,  arrested  criminals,  and 
sometimes  collected  the  taxes.  Each  town  had  also  a 
school  committee. 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUNTY 


219 


In  England,  at  the  time  when  America  was  colonized, 
the  parish  was  only  a  part  of  the  local  government. 
There  was  also  the  shire,  or  county.  The  county  origin  of 
included  a  number  of  parishes,  or  townships,  the  county 
Over  the  county  there  was  a  government  which  at  one 
time  was  composed  of  representatives  from  the  townships 
and  cities,  but  which  afterward  consisted  of  a  number  of 
justices  of  the  peace  appointed  by  the  king.  These  justices 
constituted  the  cojirt  of  quarter  sessions,  meeting  every 
quarter  of  the  year  to  hold  court.  They  were  both  a  judi- 
cial body,  trying  cases  at  law,  and  an  administrative  body, 
managing  the  affairs  of  the  county. 

The  colonists  of  Virginia  did  not  come  like  the  Pilgrims 
for  religious  freedom,  or  like  the  later  settlers  of  Massa- 
chusetts for  political  freedom.     They  came  in  _. 

'^  J  The    county 

search  of  wealth.  Virginia  is  a  rich  farming  system  in 
country,  in  which  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  ^"'smia 
great  plantations  proved  to  be  the  most  profitable  industry. 
The  colonists  scattered  themselves  along  the  rivers,  as 
planters,  instead  of  living  in  compact  communities  like  the 
New  England  colonists.  When  they  organized  themselves 
for  local  government,  therefore,  they  adopted  the  EngUsh 
plan  of  county  government,  instead  of  the  township  plan. 
The  whole  colony  was  divided  into  counties,  over  each  of 
which  was  placed  a  county  court,  consisting  of  eight  justices 
of  the  peace.  These  justices  were  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  colony,  as  in  England  they  were  appointed 
by  the  king,  but  they  could  themselves  fill  vacancies  in 
their  number.  The  county  court  was  primarily  a  judicial 
body,  trying  cases  at  law,  and  meeting  for  the  purpose 
about  once  a  month  at  a  designated  point  called  the  comity 
seat.  It  had  also  administrative  powers,  as  in  England. 
It  appointed  Jiighway  surveyors  and  constables.     It  levied 


220 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 


taxes  for  the  maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges,  and  for 
other  expenses  of  government.  In  each  county  there  was 
a  sheriff,  appointed  by  the  colonial  governor.  His  chief 
duties  were  to  execute  the  judgments  of  the  court,  and  to 
serve  as  treasurer  and  tax  collector.  Another  important 
officer  was  the  county  lieutenant,  who  had  command  of  the 
militia. 


Vovirrinht.  \Ve*l.  hv  Drtroit  Publtshmo  C'j. 

Court  House,  Denver.  Cou) 

Thus  we  find  two  forms  of  local  government  in  the  colo 
nies.  Both  were  brought  from  England,  but  each  was 
Two  forms  adapted  to  the  peculiar  conditions  in  which  the 
eovera-  colonists  found  themselves.  The  township  sys- 
ment  tem  prevailed  throughout  New  England,  where 

it  is  still  the  unit  of  the  political  organization.     The  town 
meeting  may  still  be  found  in  many  small  communities. 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUNTY  221 

although  it  has  necessarily  been  abandoned  for  the  repre- 
sentative system  in  the  larger  communities.  The  county 
system  prevailed,  with  some  variations,  throughout  the 
Southern  colonies,  where  the  conditions  of  life  were  very 
much  alike,  and  it  is  to-day  the  unit  of  the  political  organi- 
zation throughout  the  Southern  states. 

New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  lying  between  New  Eng- 
land and  the  Southern  colonies,  were  influenced  in  their 
forms  of  local  government  by  both  sections,  xhe  mixed 
They  developed  both  township  and  county,  typ® 
In  New  York  the  township  predominated,  and  it  was  organ- 
ized very  much  as  in  New  England.  The  townships,  how- 
ever, were  grouped  into  counties,  and  each  township  in  a 
county  elected  each  year  a  member  of  the  county  board  of 
supervisors.  In  Pennsylvania,  also,  there  were  both  town- 
ship and  county,  but  the  latter  predominated  over  the  town- 
ship. The  county  officers  in  Pennsylvania  were  all  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  county,  instead  of  being  appointed  by 
the  governor  as  in  Virginia. 

Throughout  the  West  the  mixed  form  of  township-county 
government  prevails,  sometimes  the  township,  sometimes 
the  county,  predominating.     The  influence  of  the  township 
is  especially  strong  in  the  Northwest,  where  there  The  influ- 
is  a  large  New  England  population.     In  Michi-   ^g^town 
gan,  northern  Illinois,  and  other  parts    of   the  meeting 
Northwest,  the    town   meeting   still    manages   the  affairs 
of  the  township.     The  influence  of  the  town   meeting  in 
developing  a  strong  citizenship  has  been  very  great.     All 
voters    have  the  right  to  attend  and  to  take  part  in  the 
discussion   and  settlement  of  affairs.     E.xperience  shows 
that,  as  a  rule,  they  take  advantage  of  their  right.     Others 
besides  voters  often  attend  in  order  to  listen  to  the  discus- 
sions.    The  town  meeting  thus  becomes  a  school  of  instruc- 


222 


£H£    COMMUNITY    Ai\D     .tit    CiTUtt, 


tion  in  public  matters.     Nowhere  else  do  we  find  such 
general  interest  in  public  questions  as  in  the  parts  of  the 


Copyright,  1908,  by  Detroit  Pvi>iisMng  Cto. 

Court  House,  Detroit,  Mich. 


country  where  the  town  meeting  prevails.     It  encourages 
healthy,  active  citizenship. 

The  county  system  of  representative  government  is  more 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUNTY  223 

practicable  throughout  the  West  than  the  township   with 
government  by  town  meeting.     The  country  is  ^.^^  ^^^^ 
almost  wholly  agricultural  and  the  population  is  ship  in  the 

West 

widely  scattered.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  congressional  townships  surveyed  by  the  na- 
tional government  to  aid  in  the  settlement  of  the  land  (see 
page  49),  suggested  that  they  be  adopted  as  civil  town- 
ships for  purposes  of  local  government.  Everywhere 
throughout  the  West,  therefore,  we  find  both  township  and 
county  governments  with  varying  relations  between  them. 
Even  in  the  South  the  counties  are  tending  to  break  up  into 
smaller  divisions  for  some  purposes  of  local  government, 
especially  in  connection  with  school  administration.  The 
principle  of  local  self-government  is  strong  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  they  prefer  the  smaller  township  to  the  county  as 
the  unit  of  government.  Except  in  the  Northwest,  how- 
ever, the  government  of  the  township  is  now  representative. 
It  is  in  the  hands  of  township  trustees,  who  correspond  to 
the  earlier  selectmen ;  the  clerk,  who  keeps  the  records ; 
the  tax  assessors  and  collectors  ;  the  justice  of  the  peace, 
who  presides  over  the  township  court  for  the  trial  of  minor 
cases  ;  the  school  trustees  ;  the  overseers  of  the  poor  ;  and 
numerous  minor  officers.  At  the  present  time  the  most  im- 
portant matters  under  the  control  of  the  township  govern- 
ment are  the  schools,  the  roads,  and  the  poor. 

The  main  governing  body  of  the  county  is  the  board  of 
county  commissioners,  or  supervisors.  They  administer 
the  affairs  of  the  county  :  they  fix  the  rate  of  tax-  xhe  West- 
ation  ;  appropriate  money  for  the  building  and  *™  county 
repairing  of  public  buildings,  such  as  the  courthouse  and 
jail,  and  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  bridges;  and  ap- 
point subordinate  officials.  Every  county  has  its  court, 
which  is  of  higher  grade  than  the  township  justice  court,  and 


224  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

is  held  at  the  county  seat.  The  commands  of  the  court 
are  carried  out  by  the  sheriff,  who  also  maintains  order  in 
the  county  and  usually  has  charge  of  the  county  jail  and 
its  inmates.  There  are  various  other  officers,  among  whom 
are  the  county  treasurer,  the  tax  assessors  and  collectors, 
the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  clerk,  the  coroner,  and 
the  surveyor. 

In  those  states  where  the  township  has  the  chief  impor- 
tance in  local  government,  the  county  exists  for  little  more 
than  judicial  purposes.  In  other  states  the  county  govern- 
ment has  many  of  the  powers  which  the  township  govern- 
ment exercises  elsewhere.  There  seems  to  be  a  growing 
tendency  to  centralize  the  administration  of  many  local 
affairs  in  the  county  government,  or  at  least  to  give  the 
county  government  supervision  over  the  affairs  of  the 
townships.  This  is  seen  in  the  administration  of  the  schools 
and  of  roads.  This  supervision  secures  greater  uniformity 
and  efficiency  than  would  be  the  case  if  each  township  had 
exclusive  control  over  these  matters. 

The  government  of  rural  communities  seems  a  compara- 
tively simple  matter.  The  pressing  problems  of  city  and 
Importance  national  government  have  thrown  it  into  the 
of  local  background.     But  it  has  an  importance  that  de- 

government  j^^^^^g  ^^le  interest  and  attention  of  every  citizen. 
In  the  first  place,  the  township  and  county  have  always 
been  the  units  of  local  self-government.  No  matter  how 
isolated  a  farmer  and  his  family  may  be,  these  governments 
provide  him  with  a  direct  means  of  cooperating  with  others 
for  the  satisfaction  of  his  immediate  wants  and  the  protec- 
tion of  his  rights.  Besides,  upon  the  excellence  of  these 
local  means  of  self-government  depends  in  large  measure 
the  success  or  failure  of  the  general  governments  of  state 
and  nation. 


TOWNSHIP   AND   COUxNTY  225 

In  the  second  place,   these  forms  of  local  government 
have  acquired  new  importance  because  of  the  very  fact  of 
the  growth   of    cities  and   the   increasing  com-  Adaptation 
plexity  of  community   life.      They  were  origi-  to  local 
nally  adapted    to    the    peculiar   needs  of    rural 
communities   and   small    towns.     To-day,   however,   many 
counties  contain  large   city   populations.     Some,    in  fact, 
are  occupied  wholly  by  large  cities,  as  in  the  case  of  New 
York  City  and  Chicago.     We  have  seen  how  the  old  form 
of  township  government  by  town-meeting  has  had  to  give 
way  before  increasing  population.     But   in    spite    of    the 
great  changes  in  conditions  through  the  transformation  of 
rural  into  urban,  or  partly  urban,  communities,  the  form 
of  county  government  has  remained  almost  unchanged. 

Where  cities  have  grown  up  within  counties  their  gov- 
ernments overlap  and  duplicate,  in  many  ways,  the  county 
governments.     This  often  results  in  conflict  of  cities  and 
authority,  wastefulness,  and  inefficiency.     Den-  counties 
ver  has   solved  the   difficulty  by   consolidating  °''^^^^ 
city  and  county  by  providing  for  a  single  board  of  five 
commissioners  at  the  head  of  both  city  and  county  govern- 
ments, and  making  city  and  county  officers  subordinate  to 
this  board.     In  Alameda  County,  California,  where  a  part 
of  the  county  is  distinctly  rural  and  another  part  made  up 
of  a  group  of  cities,  it  is  proposed  to  have  a  county  board 
of  which  the  mayors  of  the  cities  will  be  members,  and 
to  consolidate  some  of  the  county  and  city  offices. 

Another  feature  of  county  government  which  is  con- 
sidered weak,  especially  where  the  population  is  large,  is 
the  large  number  of  elective  officers.  In  Cali-  short  baUot 
fornia,  for  example,  there  were  formerly  elected  '°  counties 
in  each  county  every  four  years  five  commissioners,  a 
sheriff,  a  county  superintendent  of  schools,  a  coroner,  a 


226  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

public  administrator,  a  county  clerk,  a  district  attorney,  an 
auditor,  a  treasurer,  a  tax  collector,  an  assessor,  a  recorder 
and  a  surveyor,  besides  a  number  of  constables  and  justices 
of  the  peace.  Each  of  these  officers,  being  elected  by  the 
people,  would  feel  independent  of  all  the  others,  so  that 
instead  of  perfect  cooperation,  there  might  be  lack  of  har- 
mony and  unity  in  the  administration  of  the  county  busi- 
ness. Besides  this,  since  many  of  the  offices  thus  filled  by 
election  are  comparatively  obscure,  the  people  do  not  take 
great  interest  in  them.  Some  of  the  office  holders  are 
often  wholly  unknown  to  many  of  the  voters.  The  result 
is  likely  to  be  an  inferior  type  of  officials.  The  remedy 
proposed  for  this,  and  already  in  practice  in  some  states,  is 
the  short  ballot  (see  page  203).  The  present  law  in  Los 
Angeles  County,  California,  for  example,  provides  for  the 
election  of  not  more  than  three  officers  in  any  one  year, 
while  most  of  the  offices  are  filled  by  appointment. 

The  county  is  an  administrative  division  of  the  state. 
That  is,  an  important  part  of  the  work  of  its  government 
Home  rule  ^^  ^o  administer  the  laws  of  the  state  within  its 
for  counties  boundaries.  For  this  reason  there  must  be 
some  uniformity  among  all  the  counties  and  some  control 
over  them  by  the  state  government.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  matters  of  purely  local  concern  that  come 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  government.  Where 
there  are  such  differences  among  the  counties  as  exist  in 
most  of  the  states,  many  believe  that  better  results  would 
be  obtained  in  matters  of  purely  local  interest  if  a  larger 
degree  of  home  rule  were  allowed.  Again  California  has 
taken  the  lead  in  this  matter  by  enacting  a  state  law  which 
allows  to  each  county  the  right  to  adopt  its  own  charter,  or 
form  of  local  government,  a  right  which  the  cities  of  that 
state  have  enjoyed  for  some  time  past. 


TOWNSHIP    AND    COUNTY  22/ 

In  these  and  other  ways  county  government  is  being 
modified,  especially  in  the  West,  to  meet  the  changing 
conditions  of  community  life. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Is  the  township  or  the  county  the  more  important  division  for 
local  rural  government  in  your  state  ?     Can  you  explain  why  ? 

2.  Are  town  meetings  ever  held  in  your  state  ?  If  so,  have  you 
ever  attended  one  ?     Describe  the  meeting. 

Ni  3.    What   are  your  township  officers  ?  'Make  a  list  of  them,  and 
state  their  duties. 

4.  How  are  the  various  township  officers  chosen  ? 

5.  Is  there  any  law-making,  or  legislative,  body  in  your  tosvnship  ? 
If  so,  with  what  kinds  of  things  do  its  laws  deal  ? 

6.  How  are  the  laws  enforced  in  your  township  ? 

7.  Are  there  any  courts  in  your  township  ?  If  so,  what  are  they  ? 
What  kinds  of  cases  do  they  try  ? 

■-8.    Make  a  list  of  your  county  officers.     State  their  duties. 
,9.    How  are  the  county  officers  chosen  ? 
TO.    What  legislative  body  is  there  in  your  county  ? 

11.  What  executive  officers  are  there? 

12.  Do  the  county  legislative  officers  have  any  executive  powers  ? 

13.  Are  there  any  county  courts  in  your  county  ?  What  kinds  of 
cases  do  they  try  ? 

14.  What  buildings  belong  to  your  county  and  township  ?  What 
are  their  uses  ? 

15.  Make  a  map  of  your  county,  showing  townships.  Notice  the 
shape  of  the  townships  and  the  county.  Do  their  boundaries  follow 
the  lines  of  the  government  survey  ?  Explain  any  irregularities  in  the 
shape  of  the  townships.     Locate  the  county  seat. 

16.  Find  out  how  many  of  your  township  and  county  officers  your 
father  now  knows  by  name.  Compare  notes  in  class  on  this  point. 
Does  the  result  show  great  interest  in  township  and  county  government 
or  not  ? 

17.  Can  you  find  cases  in  your  community  in  which  the  duties  of 
various  local  officers  duplicate  each  other  ? 

18.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  applying  the  short 
ballot  to  your  own  county.  Also  the  desirability  of  a  larger  degree  01 
home  rule  for  vour  county. 


228  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE   CITIZEN 


REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapter  X. 
Forman,  "  Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXVI-XXVIII. 
Bryce,   "  The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  I,  chapters  XLVHI, 
XLIX  (abridged  edition,  chapters  XLVII,  XLVIII). 
Fiske,  "Civil  Government,"  chapters  II-IV. 
''  New  England  Town  Meeting  of  To-day,"  Outlook,  75  :  405-409 

(1903)- 

"Description  of  a  Town  Meeting,"  Outlook,  32:  561-565  (1906). 

"Town  Meetings  for  Cities,"  Nation,  32  :  434  (1906). 

"Brookline  and  Her  Government  by  Direct  Legislation,"  Arena, 
34:39-91  (1905). 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
vol.  XLVll,  May,  1914:  "County  Government."  The  most  compre- 
hensive study  of  county  government  yet  published.  Part  I  deals  with 
"Types  of  county  government";  Part  II  with  "Typical  problems  of 
county  government";  Part  III  with  "Plans  for  the  reorganization  of 
county  government." 

The  New  York  Short  Ballot  Association  (381  Fourth  Ave.)  has  is- 
sued in  pamphlet  form  the  proceedings  of  the  191 3  and  1914  meetings 
of  the  Conference  for  the  Study  and  Reform  of  County  Government. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   CITY 

The  growth  of  cities  in  the  United  States  has  been  very 
rapid.     In   1790,  when  the  first  census  was  taken,  there 
were  in  the  United  States  only  six  cities  with  Rapid 
a   population    of    8000  or  more.     The    largest,   growth  of 
Philadelphia,  had  but  28,500  people,  and  all  to- 
gether  the    six   cities   contained    132,000  population.     In 
1910   there  were  778  cities  of   8000  population  or  more, 
comprising  a  total  of    35,726,720  people.     New   York  at 
the  last  census  had  four  and  three-quarters  million,  while 
Chicago,  which  was  founded  only  in   1830,  had  consider- 
ably more  than  two  million  population.     In   1790  but  3.3 
per  cent   of   the  total  population  of  the  country  lived  in 
cities ;  to-day,  cities  contain  about  40  per  cent  of  the  total 
population. 

Cities  have  brought  with  them  serious  problems  of  com- 
munity life  and  of  government.  Where  so  many  people 
are  crowded  together,  there  are  many  conflict-  p  . .  , 
ing  interests.  Each  person  is  more  dependent  city  govern- 
on  others  for  his  well-being  than  is  the  case  in  ™^°* 
rural  communities.  The  mixed  character  of  the  population 
found  in  most  large  cities  also  presents  problems  difficult 
of  solution  (see  chapter  VII).  Other  problems  are  found 
in  the  distribution  of  the  population,  involving  the  question 
of  transportation  and  that  of  the  crowded  tenement  dis- 
tricts. Still  other  difficulties  arise  from  the  rapid  growth  of 
cities  to  a  size  originally  unexpected.  In  the  early  days  of 
Chicago,  for  example,  men  had  no  idea  that  it  would  ever 

229 


230  thp:  community  and  the  citizen 

be  a  great  city.  Care  is  not  taken,  under  such  circum- 
stances, to  plan  these  young  cities  for  the  accommodation 
of  future  crowds.  As  it  is,  American  cities  are  constantly 
being  made  over,  often  resulting  in  an  unsymmetrical  ap- 
pearance and  perhaps  in  great  inconvenience.  These  and 
other  problems  did  not  attract  much  attention  until  after 
'".he  Civil  War;  since  then  city  government  has  become 
one  of  the  greatest  problems  before  the  American  people. 
Cities,  like  counties  and  townships,  receive  their  right  of 
self-government  from  the  state.  Their  form  of  govern- 
ment and  the  powers  they  may  exercise  are  pre- 
ceive  their  scribed  in  a  charter  granted  by  the  legislature, 
"^^^°^  iust  as  some  of  the  colonies  received  charters 

self-govern-    ■" 

ment  from  from  the  king.  The  city  does  not  always  have 
the  state  even  the  right  of  ratifying  the  charter.  Since 
the  charters  are  often  long  and  detailed,  and  since  the 
legislature  usually  holds  the  right  to  change  them  at  will, 
the  amount  of  self-government  left  to  the  city  may  be  very 
limited.  This  control  over  the  details  of  the  business  of 
Control  by  cities  by  state  legislatures  is  considered  one  of 
legislature  the  chief  obstacles  to  good  city  government. 
Legislators  from  all  parts  of  the  state,  many  of  them  from 
rural  districts,  cannot  know  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  city 
so  well  as  the  people  of  the  city  themselves.  Besides,  it 
is  much  easier  for  scheming  politicians  and  corrupt  cor- 
porations to  exercise  an  influence  over  a  few  legislators 
than  over  the  citizens  of  the  city. 

This  interference  by  state  legislatures  has  been  checked 
somewhat  by  the  provision  in  some  states  for  a  general  form 
Tendency  of  charter  for  all  cities  of  about  the  same  size, 
seif-gov-  The  legislature  cannot,  then,  modify  the  charter 
emment  of  one  city  without  similarly  modifying  the 
charters  of  all  cities  of  the  same  class,  and  this  is  likely  to 


THE    GOVERNMENr    OF   THE    CITY 


231 


arouse  opposition.  On  the  other  hand,  this  plan  may 
make  it  difficult  for  a  city  to  have  its  charter  changed  when 
it  wants  to  do  so,  because  of  the  possible  opposition  to 
such  changes  on  the  part  of  other  cities  in  the  same  class. 


1 

i> 

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^-W«  ^H     »iw 

l^'a^^ 

1 

-1- 

-Ki^iS 

Ij 

n 

NQ 

mill 

a  m  Eu\     II 

C^^^mM^'m:^ 

?  1 

iW%H 

«j^ 

CopyngM,  190(5,  0;/  Orlrvii  t^uoiuiitnu  Co. 

City  Hai.i.,  Boston,  Mass. 

In  a  number  of  states,  as  in  California,  cities  are  allowed 
by  the  state  to  draft  their  own  form  of  government,  which, 
after  having  been  ratified  by  the  voters  of  the  city,  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  legislature  for  approval.  This  principle  of 
home  rule  for  cities  is  spreading  at  the  present  time. 


232  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

The  form  of  government  for  cities  in  the  United  States 
has  undergone  a  good  many  changes,  and  at  the  present 
time  varies  to  a  considerable  extent  in  different  cities.  As 
in  the  case  of  state  and  national  governments,  city  govern- 
ments exercise  legislative,  executive  and  judicial  powers, 
but  the  separation  of  these  powers  (see  page  185)  has  not 
always  been  clearly  marked. 

In  the  form  of  city  government  that  has  been  most 
common  in  recent  years  the  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
The  city  ^  ^ity  council.  Its  members  are  elected  by  the 
council  people,  the  city  being  divided  into  zvards,  from 

each  of  which  one  or  more  representatives  are  chosen. 
In  some  cases  the  council  consists  of  two  chambers,  an 
upper  chamber,  or  board  of  aldevTiten,  and  a  lower  chamber, 
or  common  council.  The  upper  chamber  is  always  the 
smaller.  The  term  of  office  of  councilmen  is  short,  usually 
one  or  two  years.  Their  salaries  generally  are  small. 
For  the  transaction  of  business  the  council  is  organized 
into  committees,  such  as  the  committee  on  streets,  on 
public  buildings,  and  on  finance.  The  mayor  ordinarily 
presides  over  the  meetings  of  the  council,  and  sometimes 
has  the  power  to  veto  its  acts. 

There  was  a  time  when  practically  all  of  the  powers  of 
government  were  held  by  the  council.  It  had  administra- 
tive, as  well  as  law-making,  powers.  The  business  of  the 
fire  department,  the  police,  the  streets,  was  managed  by  its 
committees,  or  by  officers  appointed  by  the  council.  There 
was  a  mayor,  elected  by  the  people,  but  he  had  very  little 
power.  He  was  little  more  than  a  presiding  officer  for  the 
CQuncil.      He  was  often  a  magistrate  with  judicial  powers. 

This  form  of  government  proved  unsatisfactory.  There 
were  several  objections  to  it.  One  was  the  difficulty  of 
fixing  responsibility.     It  also  resulted  in  a  lack  of  unity 


THE   GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    CITY  233 

in  government,  since  the  various  committees  were  not 
always  harmonious.  Furthermore,  the  elective  council 
members  were  frequently  incompetent  to  direct  jj  r  .  • 
the  business  of  the  various  city  departments,  government 
These  defects  resulted  in  an  important  change  ^^  coulciI 
by  which  the  powers  of  the  council  were  greatly  reduced, 
while  those  of  the  mayor  were  correspondingly  increased. 
The  council  had  never  had  wide  legislative  powers,  since 
they  extended  only  to  matters  of  local  concern  not  regu- 
lated by  state  law.  Its  most  important  legislative  power 
is  that  of  controlling  taxation  and  expenditures  for  city 
purposes.  In  some  cities  even  this  power  was  restricted 
by  a  special  board  of  estimate  with  large  powers  over  the 
city's  finances,  as  in  the  City  of  New  York.  Another  im- 
portant power  of  the  council  is  that  of  granting  franchises 
(see  page  54).  The  council  was  stripped  entirely  of  its  ad- 
ministrative powers.  The  mayor  became  the  real  executive 
head  of  the  city.  He  is  elected  by  popular  vote  Executive, 
in  all  cities,  for  a  term  varying  from  one  to  ^^^  mayor 
five  years.  His  salary  also  varies  from  a  very  small  sum 
in  many  cities  to  $15,000  in  New  York  City. 

The  work  of  administering  the  business  of  a  large  city 
is  so  great  and  so  complex  that  it  has  to  be  subdivided. 
Hence  there  are  various  administrative  depart-  ka^-^  ^  . 
ments  under  the  supervision  of  chiefs  or  boards,  tive  depart- 
Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  ™^°  ^ 
department  that  manages  the  money  affairs  of  the  city. 
There  is  always  a  treasurer,  who  has  the  care  of  the  city's 
funds  and  who  makes  payments  when  authorized  by  the 
proper  authorities.  In  some  cities  there  is  also  2i  controller, 
who  is  the  real  director  of  the  finance  department.  We 
have  heard  before  of  the  health  dcpartmoit,  usually  man- 
aged by  a  board  (see  page  60 );  the  fire  department  (page 


234 


THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 


72)  and  the. police  departtnent  (page  76),  both  (if  which  are 
sometimes  united  under  the  supervision  of  a  board  of 
safety;  the  street  depar()Hint  {]}3.gc  115)  and  \.\\q.  building 
department,  which  are  also  sometimes  combined  under  a 
board  of  public  ivorks.  The  street-cleaning  departinettt 
(page  63)  is  often   separate  from  the  street  department, 


Copyright,  V. 
City  Hall,  Louisville,  Ky. 


rublUhlngCo. 


which  looks  after  the  construction  and  repairing  of  the 
streets.  The  department  of  education  is  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  board  of  school  cojmnissioners  (page  144). 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  administrative  branches  found 
in  our  various  cities,  and  each  one  of  these  is  subdivided 
into  several  divisions  or  bureaus.  Under  them  is  a  large 
number  of  subordinate  officers  and  employees. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE  CITY  235 

In    America    there    has   always    been  a   fear  of  giving 
any  one  man   too  much   power.      It   was  this  that  led,  at 
one    time,   to    placing;   the    government    in    the 
hands  of  the  council.       It   has  also  led  to  the  tionof 
election  by  popular  vote,  and   for  short  terms,   powers  in 

r  r         1  1        •      •  •  rn  •  i  t^C  HUiyOr 

of  many  of  the  admmistrative  orncers,  m  the 
belief  that  by  so  doing  the  people  could  keep  their  hands 
directly  on  the  administration  of  the  city's  business.  In 
the  complexity  of  the  affairs  of  a  city,  and  with  the  numer- 
ous officers  necessary  to  manage  them,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  people  to  hold  every  officer  responsible  to  themselves, 
or  even  to  know  them.  When  anything  goes  wrong,  it 
has  been  found  almost  impossible  to  fix  the  responsibility 
on  any  one.  In  handling  the  vast  sums  of  money  neces- 
sary in  city  government,  and  in  the  granting  of  franchises 
and  the  letting  of  contracts,  there  is  abundant  opportunity 
for  things  to  go  wrong.  Therefore  the  tendency  has  been, 
in  our  best  governed  cities,  to  give  the  mayor  full  power  to 
appoint  his  subordinates,  as  well  as  to  remove  them,  at 
least  in  the  case  of  the  more  responsible  positions,  and 
then  to  hold  him  responsible  for  the  acts  of  his  appointees. 
City  government  has  suffered  greatly  from  the  spoils 
system  (page  210).     When  a  new  mayor  is  elected,    he 

usually    appoints    new    boards     and    heads    of 
.  ;:  .  1    .T-  •  /  ,       PoUtical 

departments,  and  these,  m  turn,  too  frequently  parties  and 

remove  subordinates  in  their  departments  to  "*y  govern- 
make  way  for  personal  or  political  friends. 
One  of  the  chief  causes  for  this  is  the  part  that  the  na- 
tional political  parties  take  in  city  elections.  National  po- 
litical questions  have  no  place  in  city  elections.  Cities 
have  local  self-government  in  order  to  manage  their  heal 
business,  such  as  paving  streets,  granting  franchises,  pro- 
tecting property  and  health.     These  are  purely  business 


236  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

matters  that  demand  business  ability  and  honesty  on  the 
part  of  those  who  manage  them,  and  have  no  relation  to 
the  great  national  issues  that  divide  the  parties  against 
each  other.  The  national  parties  retain  their  hold  on  city 
affairs  partly  to  prevent  party  spirit  and  interest  from 
flagging  in  the  period  between  national  elections,  and 
partly  to  have  at  their  disposal  the  vast  number  ot  city 
offices  as  rewards  for  faithful  party  workers  in  the  com- 
munity. The  result  of  this  is  that  not  only  the  responsible 
positions  at  the  head  of  administrative  departments,  but 
minor  positions,  such  as  those  of  policemen  and  of  clerks 
in  the  city  offices,  are  too  often  filled  with  men  w4io  have 
some  claim  on  the  party  in  power,  but  very  little  on  the 
confidence  of  the  people. 

One  means  of  removing  cities  from  partisan  control  is 
by  holding  city  elections  at  a  different  time  from  state  and 
Civil  service  national  elections,  in  the  hope  of  avoiding  con- 
reform  fusion  between  local  and  national  questions. 
More  important  than  this  is  the  introduction  of  the  merit 
system  in  the  appointment  of  city  officials  and  employees 
(see  page  211).  Good  city  government  cannot  be  expected 
until  those  who  carry  it  on  hold  their  positions  solely  on 
the  ground  of  efficiency  and  faithfulness  to  the  trust  re- 
posed in  them. 

Two    forms    of   government   very   different   from    that 

already  described  have  recently  been  introduced  in  many 

^  .  .  cities.  One  of  these  is  the  commission  form. 
Commission  •' 

form  of  By  this  plan  the  government  is  placed  wholly  in 

government  ^j^^  hands  of  a  Commission  of  from  three  to  nine 
men  (most  often  five)  who  are  elected  by  the  people  at 
large.  One  member  of  the  commission  is  designated  as 
mayor,  but  he  has  no  powers  different  from  those  of  the 
other  members.     He    presides  over  the    meetings    of  the 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  THE  CITY  237 

commission,  and  on  public  occasions  acts  as  the  official 
head  of  the  city.  The  commission  as  a  whole  acts  as  a  • 
legislative  body  and  decides  on  the  policy  to  be  followed 
by  the  government.  Each  member  of  the  commission  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  main  departments  of  the 
city  government.  Thus  there  is  a  commissioner  of  public 
works,  a  commissioner  of  finance,  a  commissioner  of  public 
safety,  and  so  on. 

This  form  of  city  government  was  first  adopted  in  Gal- 
veston, Texas,  after  the  city  had  been  devastated  by  storm 
ind  flood,  and  when  the  crisis  demanded  a  simple,  but 
energetic  and  efficient,  business  management.  Since  then 
it  has  spread  widely,  having  been  adopted  with  slight  vari- 
ations by  hundreds  of  cities  in  many  states. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  the  commission  plan  are  said 
to  be  :  (i)  that  it  prevents  the  concentration  of  too  much 
power  in  the  hands  of  one  man,  the  mayor ;  Advantages 
(2)  that  it  supplants  the  large  council  with  the  ofcommis- 
small  commission,  which  makes  it  easier  for  the  ^'°"  "'^^ 
people  to  hold  their  legislative  body  responsible  for  its 
acts ;  (3)  that  it  fixes  the  responsibility  for  the  man- 
agement of  each  department  of  government  upon  one 
man ;  (4)  that  it  facilitates  the  transaction  of  the  city's 
business.  Under  the  old  plan  of  government  there  are 
often  many  delays  in  getting  business  through  the  council, 
with  its  numerous  committees,  and  through  the  various 
administrative  offices.  Under  the  commission  form  each 
commissioner  is  on  duty  all  the  time.  The  several  commis- 
sioners may  hold  a  joint  meeting  at  any  time  as  the  occasion 
demands  ;  the  old  council  meets  but  once  a  week,  at  night. 

Under  the  commission  form  of  government  the  principle 
of  the  short  ballot  is  applied  (see  page  203).  It  is  also  usu- 
ally accompanied  by  the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and  the 


238  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

recall,  which  are  additional  means  for  holding  the  mem- 
bers of  the  commission  and  their  subordinates  responsible 
directly  to  the  people  (see  page  208). 

The  chief  objections  to  the  commission  plan  are  two. 
It  is  said  by  many  to  be  unwise  to  combine  legislative  and 

_,  .    ,.  administrative  powers  in  one  body.      It  is  further 

Objections  ^  ■' 

to  commis-  urged  that  the  commission  plan  tends  to  break 
sion  form  ^^  ^j^^  ^-^^  government  into  three,  five,  or  more 
parts,  without  sufficient  provision  for  unity.  These  objec- 
tions are  said  to  be  overcome,  -in  large  measure,  by  the 
most  recent  form  of  city  government  now  in  operation  in 
a  few  cities.     This  is  the  city-manager  plan. 

The  city-manager  plan  of  government  is  like  the  com- 
mission plan  in  that  there  is  a  commission,  or  small  coun- 
cil, of  three  or  five  men  (rarely  more).     But  it 

City-man-  '  .  ^.  \  .    ' 

ager  plan  difters  from  the  commission  plan  in  that  the 
of  govern-  commission  appoints  a  "  city  manager "  to 
whom  is  given  full  power  to  administer,  or  man- 
age, the  city's  business  in  all  its  departments,  and  to  ap- 
point his  own  subordinates.  The  commission  becomes 
wholly  a  legislative  body,  determines  what  the  policy  of 
the  government  shall  be,  appoints  the  manager,  and  holds 
him  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  city's  affairs.  It 
may  also  remove  the  manager  from  office  at  any  time. 
The  people,  on  the  other  hand,  hold  the  commission  re- 
sponsible for  the  manager's  acts,  and  usually  have  the 
power  of  recall  over  its  members.  The  relation  between 
the  commission  and  the  manager  is  like  that  between  a 
board  of  directors  in  a  business  organization  and  the  man- 
ager or  superintendent  whom  they  choose ;  or  like  that 
between  a  board  of  education  and  the  superintendent  of 
schools.  In  fact,  the  commission  becomes  a  board  of  di- 
rectors for  the  city,  and  the  city  manager  is  their  expert 
supennienaei)L 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   TFfE   CITY  239 

The  position  of  city  manager  requires  large  ability  and 
thorough  training.  Therefore,  in  most  cases,  the  council 
is  given  authority  to  seek  its  manager  wherever  Expert  man- 
he  may  be  found  tiiroughout  the  country,  and  agement 
the  salary  is  large  enough  to  attract  competent  men. 
When  the  city  of  Sumter,  S.  C,  which  was  the  first  city  to 
adopt  the  city-manager  plan,  sought  a  manager,  it  adver- 
tised widely  throughout  the  country.  One  hundred  and 
fifty  replies  to  the  advertisement  were  received,  mostly 
from  trained  civil  engineers,  and  from  this  hst  the  com- 
mission made  its  choice. 

The  city-manager  plan  of  government  has  spread  from 
Sumter,  S.  C,  to  a  number  of  other  cities,  especially  in 
Ohio.      It  may  still  be  said  to  be  an  experiment, 
but  it  seems  to  be  growing  in  favor.     The  chief  of  city- 
advantages  claimed  for  it  are  that  it  applies  to  ™aiiager 
city  government  the  principles  of  good  business 
management ;  that  it  simplifies  and  unifies  the  transaction 
of  the  city's  business ;    that  it  places  city  government  in 
the  hands  of  experts;    that  it  fixes  responsibility  in  one 
place ;  that  it  avoids  the  confusion  between  legislative  and 
executive  powers  that  is  said  to  be  a  fault  of  the  commis- 
sion plan ;  and  that  it  gives  the  people  full  control  over 
their  city  government. 

For  the  exercise  of  the  judicial  powers  of  government 

cities  have  courts.     There  are  police  courts  before  which 

are  brought  persons  arrested  by  the  police  for   „ 

^        t-  J  f  (>jty  courts 

minor  offenses  ;  there  are  higher  criminal  courts 
for  the  trial  of  more  serious  cases ;  and  there  are  civil 
courts  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  over  property  rights. 
In  many  cities  there  are,  in  addition,  special  courts  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  such  as  juvenile  courts  for  the  trial  of  juvenile 
offenders  (see  page  178).     In  some  of  the  large  cities  there 


240  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

are  night  courts,  to  provide  immediate  trial  for  the  large 
number  of  persons  arrested  at  night.  The  judges  of  the 
various  courts  are  sometimes  appointed  by  the  mayor, 
sometimes  elected  by  the  people. 

A  great  deal  depends  on  the  effectiveness  with  which 
the  courts  are  conducted.  It  is  of  course  important  to  all 
Importance  concerned  that  impartial  justice  be  administered 
of  courts  jjj  every  case.  Further,  a  wise  judge  may  do 
much  to  turn  offenders  away  from  paths  of  crime,  while 
an  unwise  or  unscrupulous  judge  may  harden  or  embitter 
those  brought  before  him.  The  police  courts  also  have 
much  to  do  with  the  efficiency  of  the  police  department. 
The  pohce  can  hardly  be  expected  to  be  diligent  in  bring- 
ing offenders  to  trial  if  there  is  any  doubt  about  receiving 
the  full  support  of  the  courts.  It  is  highly  important  that 
the  citizen  should  look  carefully  after  the  character  and 
fitness  of  the  judges,  and  the  methods  by  which  justice  is 
administered. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  What  causes  have  led  to  the  rapid  growth  of  American  cities  ? 

2.  Investigate  your  city  charter  with  respect  to  the  following  points  : 
By  whom  was  it  drafted  ?  Did  the  people  of  the  city  have  any  voice 
in  determining  what  the  charter  should  contain  ?  Has  it  ever  been 
changed,  and  if  so,  how?  Is  it  a  special  charter  for  your  city  alone,  or 
is  it  a  general  charter,  like  that  of  other  cities  of  the  same  size  ? 

3.  Investigate  your  city  council  with  respect  to  the  following  points  : 
Has  it  one  or  two  chambers  ?  How  are  its  members  chosen  ?  How 
many  members  from  each  ward?  What  is  their  term  of  office?  What 
are  the  qualifications  for  councilmen?  What  is  their  salary?  Where 
and  how  often  do  they  meet?  Who  presides  at  its  meetings?  What 
are  the  important  committees  of  the  council? 

4.  How  is  the  mayor  of  your  city  chosen  ?  What  is  his  salary  ?  His 
term  of  office?  Is  the  mayor  of  your  city  often  reelected  for  a  second 
or  third  term? 

5 .  Does  the  mayor  in  your  city  have  large  appointing  powers  ?  Does 
he  have  full  power  of  removal  from  office?     Is  he  held  responsible  for 


THE   GOVERNMENT    OF   THE    CITY  24 1 

the  acts  of  the  various  administrative  departments?     Does  he  have  the 
veto  power  over  tlie  acts  of  the  council? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  administrative  departments  of  your  city  govern- 
ment. Report  on  the  organization  of  each  department.  How  are  the 
heads  of  the  various  departments  chosen  ?  What  are  the  duties  of  each 
department? 

7.  Do  any  of  these  administrative  departments  have  legislative 
powers?     Does  the  council  have  any  executive  powers? 

8.  Ascertain  about  how  many  persons  are  employed  by  the  city 
government.  In  what  departments  do  you  find  the  largest  force  of 
employees? 

9.  Does  the  merit  system  of  appointment  prevail  in  your  city?  If 
so,  to  what  extent? 

10.  Describe  the  commission  form  of  city  government;  the  city- 
manager  plan;  compare  the  two. 

11.  Discuss  in  class  the  reasons  for  the  many  changes  in  the  forms 
of  city  government. 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  XI,  XII. 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapter  XXIX. 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  II,  chapters  L-LII 
(abridged  edition,  chapters  XLIX-LI). 

Goodnow,  "City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  "Municipal 
Problems." 

Beard.  "American  City  Government"  (Century  Company,  1912). 

Bruere,  "The  New  City  Government"  (Appleton,  1912). 

Woodruff,  "City  Government  by  Commission"  (Appleton,  191 2). 

"  The  City  Manager  Plan  of  Municipal  Government,"  a  pamphlet 
issued  by  the  National  Short  Ballot  Association,  New  York,  1913. 

Wilcox,  "The  American  City." 

Fairlie,  "Municipal  Administration." 

Howe,  "  The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy.'" 

On  state  control  of  cities,  see  : 

Beard,  "  American  City  Government,  pp.  31-51. 

Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  L'nited  States,  chapters  V,  VI, 

Wilcox,  "  The  American  cJity,"  chapter  XI. 

Goodnow,  "  Municipal  Proljlems,"  chapter  IV. 

On  national  parties  and  city  government,  see : 
Goodnow,  "  Municipal  Problems,"  chapter  VIII. 

See  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  for  recent  magazine 
articles. 


V^  v/ 


'V^K, 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE 

Each  state  in  the  Union  has  a  written  constitution. 
This  constitution  is  the  fundamental  law  of  the  state,  and 
State  con-  gives  to  the  government  its  form  and  powers, 
stitutions  jt  jg  a  law  made  by  the  people  themselves,  is 
superior  to  laws  made  by  the  legislature,  and  cannot 
be  changed  in  any  way  except  by  the  people  themselves. 
The  constitutions  of  the  original  thirteen  states  were 
adopted  when  these  states  declared  their  independence 
from  England,  and  took  the  place  of  the  colonial  charters 
which  had  been  granted  by  the  king.  <  They  were  a  sub- 
stitution of  self-government  for  government  by  the  king. 
The  other  states  adopted  their  constitutions  when  they 
entered  the  Union.  Each  state  constitution  was  framed 
by  a  convention  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  people  for  this 
purpose,  and  was  ratified,  in  most  cases,  by  a  vote  of  the 
people. 

The  constitution  provides  for  its  own  amendment  and 

revision  if  defects  appear,  or  if  conditions  change  to  such 

Amend-         ^^  extent  that  its  provisions  are  not  adequate. 

ment  and  Amendment  of  the  constitution  consists  merely 
revision  •        u  •  r   -^  •  •  ... 

m  changmg  some  of  its  provisions ;  revision  is 

a  recasting  of  the  whole  constitution.  Both  processes  re- 
quire the  consent  of  the  voters  of  the  state.  Amendments 
are  usually  enacted  by  the  legislature  and  submitted  to  the 
vote  of  the  people  at  the  polls.     Revision  usually  takes 

242 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE  243 

place  by  means  of  a  convention  of  delegates  elected  by  the 
people  for  the  purpose.  The  revised  constitution  is  nearly 
always  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people.  In  some 
states  the  constitution  requires  the  legislature  to  give  the 
people  an  opportunity  to  revise  the  constitution  at  stated 
intervals,  say  every  ten  or  twenty  years. 

The  constitution  thus  represents  the  supreme  will  of  the 
people,  and  is  intended  to  prevent  any  encroachment  on 
their  rights  and  liberties  either  by  themselves  or  ^^^  ^^^^^^_ 
by  the  government  which  the  constitution  creates,  tution  repre- 
One  of  the  most  important  parts  6f  every  state   s^pfg^e^ 
constitution,  therefore,  is  the  di//  of  i-ights,  which  win  of  the 
is  a  detailed  statement  of  the  rights  which  must  P^P® 
not  be  infringed  on  by  the  government.     In  almost  every 
state,  the  bill  of  rights  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the 
first  part  of  the  constitution. 

The  main  part  of  each  constitution  contains  the  plan  of 
government.  Although  the  governments  of  the  states 
differ  in  details  to  meet  the  peculiar  conditions  General  plan 
of  each,  the  general  plan  is  the  same  in  all.  of  govem- 
The  federal  Constitution  guarantees  to  each  ™  "^ 
state  a  republican  form  of  government  (Art.  IV,  sec.  4) ; 
that  is,  a  form  of  self-government  without  the  domination 
of  a  king.  In  each  state  the  government  is  divided  into 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  branches,  with  a  separa- 
tion of  powers  much  more  complete  than  is  usual  in  cities 
(page  232). 

In  all  the  states,  at  the  present  time,  the  legislature  con- 
sists of  two  chambers,  or  houses.     The  upper  chamber,  or 
senate,  is  usually  from  one  third  to  one  half  the  The  legis- 
size  of  the  lower  chamber,  or  house  of  represent-  Mature 
atives.     In    the  two-chambered    legislature   we    have  an- 
other illustration  of  the  system  of  checks  and  balances; 


244  THE    COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

for  every  bill,  or  proposed  measure,  must  pass  each  house 
separately  before  it  can  become  a  law.  The  people  have 
always  been  afraid  of  the  law-making  power,  and  have 
hedged  it  around  with  restrictions  and  provisions  to  make 
Checks  on  hasty  law-making  difficult.  For  this  reason,  not 
maWn*'  ^^^^  must  the  law  pass  each  house  separately, 
power  but  in  every  state  but  one  the  governor  is  given 

a  check  on  the  legislature  in  his  veto  power.  A  bill  to 
become  a  law  must  be  signed  by  the  governor.  If  he  dis- 
approves of  the  bill,  he  may  prevent  its  passage  by  vetoing 
it,  or  recording  his  vote  against  it.  However,  the  legisla- 
ture may  overcome  the  governor's  veto  by  again  passing 
the  bill,  usually  by  a  two-thirds  majority. 

The  members  of  the  legislature  are  chosen  by  popular 
vote.  In  many  of  the  states  the  legislature  meets  but  once 
in  two  years,  and  its  sessions  are  limited  to  a  period  of  from 
forty  to  ninety  days,  both  of  which  provisions  are  intended 
to  prevent  too  much  law-making.  The  lieutenant  governor 
usually  presides  over  the  senate,  while  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives elects  a  speaker  to  preside.  The  speaker  and 
the  president  of  the  senate  have  the  power  of  appointing 
the  committees  in  the  two  houses,  by  which  most  of  the 
business  of  law-making  is  done. 

The  law-making  power  of  the  legislature  extends  to  any 
subject  whatever,  except  as  it  is  limited  by  the  Constitution 
Restrictions  (Art.  I,  sec.  lo),  the  laws,  and  the  treaties  of  the 
ontheiegis-  United    States,   or   by  the   constitution  of   the 

lature  by  -' 

the  people  state.  The  earlier  state  constitutions  were  short, 
and  contained  few  restrictions  on  the  power  of  the  legisla- 
ture. But  partly  through  the  love  of  the  people  for  direct 
self-government,  and  partly  because  of  a  growing  fear  of 
the  power  of  legislatures,  the  tendency  has  been  to  insert 
more  details  in  the  constitutions  of  the  newer  states,  and 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OP'   THE    STATE 


245 


to  leave  less  to  the  discretion  of  the  legislatures.  The 
initiative  and  the  referendum,  which  have  been  introduced 
in  a  number  of  the  states  (see  page  209),  serve  as  a  further 
means  by  which  the  people  have  undertaken  to  curb  the 
power  of  the  legislature. 


Indiana  State  House. 

A  great  many  influences  are  brought  to  bear  on  state 
legislatures,  which  determine  more  or  less  completely  the 
character  of  the  laws  passed.  Legislation  is  influence  on 
often  dictated  by  a  political  boss  (see  page  205),  legislation 
who  may,  in  turn,  be  the  representative  of  private  interests. 
Citizens  and  corporations  who  have  special  interests  which 
they  wish  the  legislature  to  favor  go,  or  send  their  repre- 
sentatives, to  the  legislative  halls  and  committee  rooms,  and 
try  to  bring  influences  to  bear  on  the  legislators  to  secure 
the  passage  of  the  desired  laws.  This  is  known  as  lobby- 
hig. 


246  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Legislatures  watch  for  every  expression  of  public  opin- 
ion on  questions  that  come  before  them.  The  opinion  of 
Public  the  people  expressed  through  the  newspapers, 

opinion  by  public  meetings,  or  by  personal  letters,  has  a 

great  influence.  This  is  one  of  the  strongest  safeguards  of 
self-government.  Law-makers  seldom  dare  to  meet  the  dis- 
approval of  the  people  when  it  is  clearly  and  strongl}^  ex- 
pressed. From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  responsibility  of 
the  citizen  for  his  own  self-government  does  not  end  when 
he  elects  his  representative  to  the  legislature.  He  must 
have  opinions  of  his  own  on  public  questions,  and  must 
make  them  known. 

/"•As  in  city  governments,  the  executive  branch  of  state 
government  is  divided  and  subdivided  into  numerous  de- 
The  execu-  partments,  bureaus,  and  commissions.  The 
*^^®  chief  executive  officer  is  the  governor,  who  is 

elected  by  the  people,  and  whose  term  of  office  varies 
from  one  to  four  years.  His  chief  duty,  in  theory,  is  to 
see  that  the  laws  of  the  state  are  faithfully  executed.  In 
fact,  however,  the  governor  does  not  have  the  power  to 
enforce  the  laws  that  we  should  expect  him  to  have.  As 
we  have  seen  (page  185),  counties  and  townships  and  even 
cities  are  administrative  divisions  of  the  state  government, 
and  the  enforcement  of  state  laws  is  largely  in  the  hands. 
of  local  officers.  Over  these  local  officers  the  governor 
usually  has  no  authority.  He  cannot  remove  them  in  case 
they  fail  to  enforce  the  laws.  Only  in  extreme  cases,  such  as 
riot,  or  other  serious  disturbance,  which  the  local  authorities 
prove  incapable  of  handling,  may  the  governor  intervene 
with  the  state  militia,  of  which  he  is  the  commander-in-chief. 

Still  further,  the  governor  is  only  one  of  the  executive 
officers  of  the  state.  Among  the  most  important  of  the 
other  executive  officers  are  the  treasurer ;  the  miditor  (or 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   STATE  247 

co))iptrollcr\  who  manages  the  financial  affairs  of  the  state, 
and  instructs  the  treasurer  what  moneys  to  pay  out;  the 
secretary  of  state,  who  keeps  the  records  of  the  ^j^^  j^^^^^ 
state  ;  the  attorney-general,  who  is  the  legal  ad-  of  depart- 
visor  of  the  executive  heads,  and  represents  the  ^^^  ^ 
state  in  court ;  and  the  superintendeiit  of  schools.     These 
officers  do  not  constitute  a  governor's  r^^/«^/,  as  the  similar 
officers  in  the  national   government  do  for  the  President 
(see  page  259).     They  are  not  appointed  by  him,  as  a  rule, 
nor  are  they  removable  by  him.     They  may  belong  to  dif- 
ferent parties.     They  are  elected,  in  most  cases,  directly  by 
the  people,  and  the  governor  has  no  authority  over  them. 
This  was  intended  to  give  the  people  more  direct  Executive 
Control  over  the  executive  business  of  the  state,   responsibii- 
and  to  prevent  the  governor  from  assuming  too  *  ^ 
much  power.     In  reality  it  weakens  the  executive,  for  it 
divides  responsibility. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  governor  has  considerable  in- 
fluence over  legislation.     Not  only  has  he  the  veto  power, 
already  mentioned,  but  he  may  recommend,  in   ^j^^  powers 
formal  messages  to   the  legislature,  legislation  of  the  gov- 
that  he  thinks  should  be  enacted.     He  frequently   ^^°^ 
goes  about  the  state  making  speeches  for  or  against  pro- 
posed legislation,  thus  creating  a  public  opinion  which  the 
legislature  fears  to  disregard.     The  governor  may  also  call 
special  sessions  of  the  legislature  to  force  consideration  of 
measures  that  have  not  been  attended  to  in  the  regular 
sessions. 

Among  the  powers  of  the  governor  is  that  of  pardoning 
criminals  ;  but  even  this  power  is  in  some  states  transferred 
to  a  board  of  pardons.  He  also  has  the  power  of  appoint- 
ment to  many  state  positions,  as  in  the  case  of  heads  of  ad- 
ministrative bureaus  and  state  institutions,  such  as  forestry 


248  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

bureaus,  and  institutions  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  insane ; 

and  members  of  special  commissions  and  boards,  such  as 

railway  commissions  and  boards  of  health  and  charities. 

The  approval  of  the  legislature  is  usually  required  in  the- 

governor's  appointments. 

Questions  are  constantly  arising  as  to  the  meaning  of 

the  law,  or  how  it  applies  to  a  particular  case.     To  decide 

such  questions  the  state  constitution  provides  a 
The  courts  ^      .  ..,.,..,, 

system  ot  courts,  constitutmg  the  judicial  branch 

of  government.     They  are  the  stronghold  of  the  citizen 

against  injustice. 

The  most  numerous  courts  are  the  justices'  courts,  at 
least  one  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  every  community, 
Justices'  easily  accessible  to  the  people.  They  are  the 
courts  lowest  grade  of  state  courts,  before  which  are 

tried  petty  offenses  against  law  and  order  and  trifling  dis- 
putes over  property.  The  judges  who  preside  over  these 
courts  are  cnWed  justices  of  the  peace.  In  cities  there  are 
other  courts  of  the  same  class,  known  2i^  police  courts,  which 
are  made  necessary  by  the  great  number  of  misdemeanors 
committed  in  city  life. 

Next  above  the  justices'  courts  are  the  district,  or  cir- 
cuit, courts.  They  are  called  district  courts  because  the 
District  State  is  divided  into  judicial  districts  (see  page 

courts  5^^^  each  of  which  has  a  single  court  of  this 

grade.  They  are  called  circuit  courts  because  the  presid- 
ing judge  holds  the  court  first  in  one  county  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  then  in  another,  until  the  circuit  of  the  counties 
is  completed. 

It  is  before  the  circuit  or  district  courts  that  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  of  importance  are  brought  for  trial.  Many 
cases  first  tried  before  a  justice's  court  are  appealed  to  the 
district  court  for  a  second  trial.     This  is  because,  in  the  first 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    STATE  249 

place,  district  judges  are  more  able  and  better  trained  men 
than  the  justices  of  the  peace ;  and  because,  in  the  second 
place,  dijury  trial  may  always  be  had  in  the  district  court. 
The  Constitution  of  the  United  State  provides  that  every 
man  shall  have  the  right  to  trial  by  jury  in  all  criminal 
cases,  and  in  civil  cases  involving  a  sum  of  more  than 
;^20  (Amendments  VI  and  VII). 

In  large  cities  there  are  often  criminql  courts,  and  other 
special  courts,  to  meet  the  needs  of  city  life,  and  to  relieve 
the  district  courts  of  a  portion  of  the  work  that  ^j.       . 
would  otherwise  come  before  them.     In  some  county 
states  there  is  also  a  county  court  for  each  county,   """"^^ 
besides /r^^rt/r,  chancery,  and  other  courts,  for  the  trial  of 
special  classes  of  cases. 

Each  state  has  one  supreme  court,  which  usually  holds 
its  sessions  at  the  state  capital,  although  for  convenience 
it  sometimes  holds  sessions  in  other  cities.  It  supreme 
consists  of  several  judges,  who  are  presided  court 
over  by  a  cJiicf  justice.  The  work  of  this  court  is  almost 
altogether  rt//^//^r/^;  that  is,  the  cases  tried  before  it  are 
usually  appealed  to  it  from  the  lower  courts.  There  are, 
however,  certain  classes  of  cases  that  come  before  the 
supreme  court  for  first  trial,  such  as  cases  in  which  the 
oflficial  action  of  state  officers  is  in  question. 

in  the  first  constitutions  of  the  original  thirteen  states 
it  was  provided  that  the  judges  should  be  appointed  by 
the  governor  or  chosen  by  the  legislature.     As  „.  .  , 

°  7  fc>  Theappoint- 

the  movement  toward  a  more  democratic  govern-  ment  of 
mcnt  grew,  the  states  began  to  provide  for  the   ^"*^^®^ 
election  of  their  judges  by  the  people.     In  most  of  the 
states,   at  the   present   time,   the    judges    are    so    chosen, 
though  in  some  they  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and  in 
others  by  the  legislature.     The  election  of  the  judges  by 


250  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

the  people,  at  the  same  time  with  other  state  officers,  tends 
to  make  their  selection  a  matter  of  party  politics.  This  is 
especially  true  when  they  are  elected  for  short  terms,  as  is 
usually  the  case.  The  courts  should  be  entirely  removed 
from  partisan  disputes,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by 
a  life  tenure  of  office,  as  is  the  case  in  the  federal  courts. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  give  the  people  a  certain  con- 
trol over  the  judges,  as  over  executive  officers,  by  applying 
Recall  of  the  principle  of  the  recall ;  only  in  this  case  it 
decisions  jg  j^Qt  a  recall  of  the  judge  himself,  but  of  his 
decision,  that  is  proposed.  For  example,  if  a  judge  should 
declare  a  law  unconstitutional,  a  number  of  voters  might, 
by  petition,  require  the  question  to  be  voted  on  at  an  elec- 
tion. If  a  majority  of  the  voters  agreed  with  the  judge, 
his  decision  would  stand  ;  otherwise  it  would  not.  It  is 
said  by  the  friends  of  this  idea  that  if  the  people  make 
the  constitution,  they  should  have  the  final  right  of  declar- 
ing what  they  intended  it  to  mean.  The  recall  of  judicial 
decisions  is  so  far  permitted  in  but  one  state,  Colorado. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Report  on  the  first  constitutional  convention  of  your  state. 

2.  Has  your  state  constitution  ever  been  revised  ?  How  many 
times  ?     How  was  it  done  ? 

3.  How  many  amendments  have  been  made  to  your  state  constitu- 
tion ?  What  is  the  method  of  amendment  provided  in  your  constitu- 
tion ? 

4.  Describe  the  organization  of  the  legislature.  How  often  does  it 
meet  ?     How  long  are  its  sessions  ? 

5.  What  restrictions  are  i^laced  on  the  legislature  by  Art.  I,  sec.  10, 
of  the  federal  Constitution  ? 

6.  Is  the  legislature  in  your  state  positively  forbidden  to  do  certain 
things  by  the  state  constitution  ?     What  are  they  ? 

,-  7.    What  different  courts  exist  in  your  state  ? 
,    8.    How  are  jurymen  selected  ? 
9.    If  you  live  in  a  large  city,  what  special  city  courts  exist  there  ? 


THE   GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    STATE  25 1 

10.  How  are  the  judges  chosen  in  your  state  ?     What  is  their  term 
of  office  ? 

1 1.  Debate  the  question,  "  The  judges  of  the  state  courts  should  be 
appointed  by  the  governor  for  life." 

'  12.  What  are  the  executive  departments  in  your  state  ?  How  are 
their  heads  chosen  ? 

•  13.  Does  the  governor  of  your  state  have  the  pardoning  power,  or 
is  there  a  board  of  pardons  ?  Is  the  pardoning  power  often  exercised  ? 
14.  Does  the  governor  of  your  state  often  exercise  the  veto  power  ? 
How  may  a  bill  be  passed  over  his  veto  ? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  "VT-IX. 
Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXII-XXIV. 
Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  H.  part  II. 
Beard,  ''American  Citizenship,"  chaps.  IX,  XV. 
Copies  of  the  state  constitution  should  be  available. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE   NATION 

The  American  colonists  sought  their  independence  be- 
cause of  the  despotism  of  king  and  parliament,  and  they 
had  instilled  in  them  a  fear  and  hatred  of  a 
nest^Mhe  powerful  centralized  government.  When  they 
govern-  declared  their  independence,  therefore,  it  was  as 
the*^ Articles  thirteen  states,  independent  of  each  other  as 
of  Confeder-  -^qW  as  of  England.  They  did  create  a  central 
government  under  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion ;  but  this  government  was  only  for  purposes  of  com- 
mon defense.  It  had  no  power  to  tax  the  people ;  it  had 
no  executive  authority  to  compel  them  to  do  its  bidding. 
The  experience  of  the  people  under  the  Confederation 
taught  them  that  there  were  common  interests  among  the 
states  that  were  not  being  protected,  and  conflicting  inter- 
ests that  were  rapidly  leading  to  disunion  and  anarchy 
(page  lOO).  They  discovered  the  truth  that  no  government 
is  even  worse  than  a  despotic  government. 

A  convention  of  leading  men  was  therefore  called  in 
1787  for  the  purpose  of  amending  the  weak  points  of  the 
The  consti-  -^^^icles  of  Confederation.  These  Articles  pro- 
tutionai  vided  that  no  amendment  could  be  made  without 
convention  ^j^^  unanimous  consent  of  the  states ;  and  this 
could  not  be  obtained  from  the  jealous  and  quarreling 
states.  In  this  extremity  the  wise  leaders  of  the  conven- 
tion  determined   to   frame   an  entirely  new  constitution, 

252 


THE    GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    NATION  253 

totally  changing  the  form  of  government,  and  to  submit  it 
to  the  people  for  their  acceptance  or  rejection.  This  they 
did  ;  and  after  the  greatest  difficulty  the  new  Constitution 
was  ratified  by  the  people  of  a  sufficient  number  of  states 
to  make  it  binding  on  them.  In  due  time  it  was  ratified 
by  all  of  the  original  thirteen  states. 

The  Constitution  prescribes,  in  Article  V,  the  methods 
by  which  it  may  be  amended.  These  methods  are  sufifi- 
ciently  difficult  to  prevent  frequent  or  hasty  Method  of 
changes  in  the  fundamental  law,  but  not  so  amendment 
difficult  as  to  prohibit  changes  when  it  is  clearly  the  will 
of  the  people  that  they  be  made.  Amendments  may  be 
proposed  either  by  Congress,  when  two  thirds  of  both 
houses  deem  it  necessary  ;  or  by  a  national  convention 
called  for  the  purpose  by  Congress  on  the  request  of  the  leg- 
islatures of  two  thirds  of  the  states.  When  amendments 
have  been  proposed  by  either  of  these  methods  they  must 
be  ratified  by  at  least  three  fourths  of  the  states  acting 
through  their  legislatures  or  through  state  conventions,  as 
Congress  may  indicate.  Seventeen  amendments  to  the 
Constitution  have  been  made  since  its  adoption. 

The  first  great  problem  that  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion had  to  solve  was  the  creation  of  a  government  strong 
enough  to  protect  the  common  interests  of  all  Distribution 
the  states,  while  not  so  powerful  as  to  destroy  °^  powers 
their  independence.  This  problem  was  solved  by  the 
carefully  adjusted  distribution  of  powers  referred  to  on 
page  183.  First,  there  were  c(txX.2^\\  powers  granted  exeln- 
sively  to  the  federal  government,  such  as  to  make  war  and 
peace,  to  make  treaties  and  alliances,  to  send  and  receive 
ambassadors,  to  regulate  foreign  and  interstate  commerce, 
to  coin  money,  and  some  others.  Second,  there  were 
certain  powers  to    be  exereised  conenrrently  by  both   state 


254  THE   COMMUNITY   AND  THE   CITIZEN 

and  national  governments,  such  as  the  power  of  taxation 
and  of  borrowing  money.  Third,  there  "^oxo.  powers  denied 
to  tJic  federal  government  {?>Q.Q.  Art.  I,  sec.  9;  Amendments 
I-VIII).  Fourth,  there  were  powers  denied  to  the  states 
(Art.  I,  sec.  10).  Fifth,  all  "  powers  not  delegated  to  the 
United  States  by  the  Constitution  nor  prohibited  by  it  to 
the  states  are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively  or  to  the 
people"  (Amendment  X). 

In  the  general  plan  of  the  national  government  the 
convention  was  influenced  by  the  plan  of  the  state  gov- 
ernments. Provision  was  therefore  made  for  a  legislative, 
an  executive,  and  a  judicial  branch,  with  the  same  separa- 
tion of  powers  that  is  found  in  the  states. 

The  question  at  once  arose  as  to  the  basis  of  represen- 
tation in  the  Congress,  which  was  to  consist  of  two  houses. 
Representa-  Some  of  the  delegates,  representing  the  smaller 
tion  in  states,  believed  that  all  the  states  should  have 

equal  representation,  thus  keeping  prominent  the 
idea  that  the  Union  was  a  mere  league  of  states.  Dele- 
gates from  the  larger  states,  on  the  other  hand,  arguing 
that  the  states  together  constituted  a  single  nation,  believed 
that  the  several  states  should  be  represented  in  proportion 
to  their  population.  The  contest  was  settled  by  a  compro- 
mise, according  to  which  each  state  was  to  have  two 
representatives  in  the  Senate,  and  proportional  represen- 
tation in  the  House  of  Representatives.  According  to 
the  apportionment  following  the  census  of  1910,  there  is 
one  representative  for  every  212,407  people,  making  a 
total  of  435  members  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  elected 
by  direct  vote  of  the  people,  one  from  each  of  the  congres- 
sional districts  into  which  each  state  is  divided.  The 
number  of    congressional  districts  in  each  state  is  deter- 


I 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  THE   NATION  255 

mined  by  the  population  of  the  state  at  the  most  recent 
census.     The   members  of  the   Senate  are  considered  as 
representing  their  states,  rather  than  the  people.  The  Senate 
It  was  originally  provided  that  they  should  be  and  the 
elected  by  the  state  legislatures  (Art.  I,  sec.  3),   Represent- 
but  by  the  seventeenth  amendment  to  the  Con-  atives 
stitution  they  will  hereafter  be  elected  by  vote  of  the  people. 
A  higher  age  qualification  was  fixed  for  membership  in  the 
Senate  than  in  the  House  (Art.  I,  sec.  2,  clause  2 ;  sec.  3, 
clause  3).     The  term  of  office  of  senators  is  six  years,  while 
that  of  representatives  is  only  two.     The  term  of  office  of 
only  one  third  of  the  senators  expires  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  at  least  two  thirds  of  the -Senate  is  always  experienced, 
while  the  House  may  be  almost  entirely  made  over  at  any 
election.     These  and  other  causes  have  made  the  Senate 
a  more  dignified  and  conservative  body  than  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

The  greater  conservatism  of  the  Senate  was  intended,  in 
part,  as  a  check  on  the  impetuosity  of  the  direct  representa- 
tives of  the  people,  and,  in  part,  to  fit  it  for  its 

•  Powers  of 

special  executive  duties.     The  Senate  must  con-  the  Senate 
firm  all  appointments  made  by  the   President,  ^^^  the 
and  must,  by  a  two  thirds  vote,  ratify  all  treaties 
made  by  the  President  before  they  can  go  into  effect  (Art. 
H,  sec.  2).     The  Senate  moves  more  slowly  in  its  delibera- 
tions than  the  House,  takes  more  time   for  debate,  and 
exercises  a   steadying  influence  on  the   lower   and    more 
numerous  body.     On  the  other  hand,  the  House  serves  as 
a  check  on  the  Senate  and  has  certain  powers  not  held  by 
the  latter.     All  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in 
the  House,  although  the  Senate  may  suggest  amendments 
to  them  (Art.  I,  sec.  7).     All  other  bills  may  originate  in 
either  house,  but  must  pass  each  house  separately.     The 


256  THE   COMMUNITY   AND    THE   CITIZEN 

House  has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment ;  but  the  Senate 
must  act  as  the  court  to  try  the  impeachment  (Art.  I,  sec.  2, 
clause  5  ;  sec.  3,  clause  6).  Six  judges,  one  President,  and 
one  Secretary  of  War  have  been  impeached  by  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  our  history,  but  only  in  the  cases  of 
three  of  the  judges  did  the  Senate  convict. 

Both  houses  of  Congress  are  organized  into  a  large 
number  of  committees,  by  which  most  of  the  work  of 
c  mitt  e  legislation  is  done.  Every  bill  proposed  in  either 
and  the  house  is  referred  to  its  appropriate  committee 

spea  er  ^^^  consideration.  A  large  proportion  of  these 
bills  never  come  out  of  committee  at  all.  Those  that  are 
reported  back  to  Congress  are  usually  passed  or  not  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  committees. 
Until  recently  the  committees  of  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives were  appointed  by  the  Speaker,  who  is  the  presid- 
ing officer  of  the  House,  elected  by  it,  and  of  course 
representing  the  majority.  This  control  over  the  com- 
mittees gave  the  Speaker  great  power  over  legislation. 
At  present,  however,  the  committees  of  the  House  are 
elected  by  it,  a  majority  of  each  committee  representing 
the  majority  party  of  the  House.  By  this  and  other 
means  the  power  of  the  Speaker  has  been  materially 
reduced.  The  committees  of  the  Senate  are  elected  by 
that  body. 

One  of  the  chief  defects  of  the  government  under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  was  the  lack  of  a  strong  execu- 
Theexecu-  ^^'^^^  ^^^  ^^^  memory  of  the  despotism  of  the 
tive  king    caused    opposition,   in   the  convention   of 

1787,  to  the  establishment  of  a  single  executive  head.  Ex- 
perience in  the  state  governments,  however,  had  shown  that 
a  single  executive  head  was  not  dangerous  if  his  powers 
were  properly  limited  and  checked.     The  result  was  that 


THE    GOVERNMENT   OF    THE    NATION  257 

the  executive  branch  of  the  national  government  was  made 
to  consist  of  a  President,  with  a  short  term  of  four  years, 
who  shall  be  removable  from  office  by  impeachment  if  he 
ventures  to  assume  powers  not  conferred  on  him.  A  Vice- 
President  also  was  created,  who,  however,  has  no  executive 
powers  except  in  the  event  of  the  President's  death,  when 
he  assumes  that  office.  He  is  presiding  officer  over  the 
Senate,  but  he  has  no  vote  in  legislation  except  in  case  of 
a  tie.  The  President  and  the  Vice-President  are  elected 
by  the  peculiar  electoral  system  described  on  page  197 
(Constitution,  Art.  II,  sec.  i,  and  Amendment  XII).  This 
method,  originally  intended  to  remove  the  choice  from  the 
control  of  the  masses,  fails  to  do  so,  and  is  now  a  mere 
form  because  of  the  development  of  the  party  system  of 
making  nominations. 

Although  in  the  states  the  executive  power  is  divided 
among  the  governor  and  other  officers  (see  page  246),  in 
the  national  government  it  is  concentrated  com-  ^  ncentra- 
pletely  in  the  hands  of  the  President.  The  tion  of  exec- 
heads  of  the  executive  departments ^  constituting  "**^®  power 
the  President's  cabinet,  are  appointed  by  the  President 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  (Art.  II,  sec.  2, 
clause  2)  and  are  removable  by  him.  They  are  responsible 
to  him  alone,  and  carry  out  the  policy  of  government  dic- 
tated by  him.  If  anything  goes  wrong  in  any  of  the  execu- 
tive departments,  the  people  hold  the  President  responsible 
for  it,  and  may  show  their  disapproval  at  the  next  election. 

The  President's  power  to  make  appointments,  like  his 
power  to  make  treaties  with  foreign  nations,  is  ^^^  power 
limited  by  requiring  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  of  the  Presi- 
Senate.     On  the  other  hand,  the  President  has 
a  check  on  legislation  in  his  veto  power,  although  Congress 
may  pass  a  law  over  the  President's  veto  by  a  two  thirds 


258  THE    COMMUNITY    AND   THE    CITIZEN 

vote.  The  veto  power  of  the  President  was  intended  to 
prevent  Congress  from  going  beyond  the  powers  granted 
to  it  in  the  Constitution.  It  has  often  been  exercised,  how- 
ever, merely  because  the  President  disapproved  the  meas- 
ure enacted  by  Congress.  The  President  has  exercised 
the  veto  power  much  more  in  recent  years  than  formerly. 
Congress  very  rarely  passes  a  law  over  the  President's 
veto.  The  President  has  some  further  influence  in  legisla- 
tion by  his  power  to  call  special  sessions  of  Congress  and 
through  his  messages  to  Congress,  in  which  he  suggests 
questions  that,  in  his  opinion,  demand  legislative  action. 

In  the  appointment  of  the  subordinate  officers  and  em- 
ployees of  the  civil  service.  Congress,  and  especially  the 
Encroach-  Senate,  is  accused  of  encroaching  on  the  powers 
™^"1°".        of  the   President.     The   latter,   in  seeking  for 

the  Pre  SI-  '  ° 

dent's  ap-  suitable  persons  to  fill  the  thousands  of  places 
^ower"b  ^^  ^^^  disposal  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  has 

Congress  naturally  come  to  depend  largely  on  the  senators 
and  representatives  from  the  different  sections  for  informa- 
tion regarding  the  qualifications  of  the  candidates.  Be- 
cause of  this,  the  members  of  Congress  have,  in  the  course 
of  time,  assumed  the  right  to  make  nominations  for  these 
offices,  and  expect  the  President  to  accept  their  suggestions. 
The  President  has  often  been  forced  to  accede  to  the  wishes 
of  congressmen  in  the  matter  of  appointment  by  their  refusal 
to  enact  legislation  that  he  wishes  unless  he  does  accede. 

In  this  way  the  Congress  has,  in  a  measure,  taken  upon 
itself  some  of  the  powers  that  belong  to  the  President. 
Generally  speaking,  this  has  lowered  the  efficiency  of  the 
civil  service  by  encouraging  the  spoils  system.  This  evil 
has,  in  part,  been  checked  by  the  introduction  of  the  merit 
system  of  appointment  to  a  large  proportion  of  the  offices 
in  the  civil  service  (see  page  211). 


THE   GOVERNMENT   Oh    THE   NATION  259 

The  President's  cabinet  is  made  up  of  the  heads  of  the 
ten  executive  departments  —  State,  the  Treasury,  War, 
the  Navy,  Justice,  Post  Office,  the  Interior,  Agriculture, 
Commerce,  and  Labor. 

Through  the  Department  of  State  relations  are  main- 
tained between  the  United  States  and  foreign  powers. 
The  Secretary  of  State  is  in  constant  communi-  Department 
cation  with  the  ambassadors,  ministers,  consuls,  °^  State 
and  other  representatives  of  our  government  in  foreign 
countries,  and  with  the  similar  representatives  of  foreign 
governments  in  this  country.  He  is  also  the  channel  of 
communication  between  the  President  of  the  United  States 
and  the  governors  of  the  several  states.  Through  him  the 
rights  of  American  citizens  in  foreign  countries  are  looked 
after.  The  Secretary  of  State  is  the  first  in  rank  among 
the  cabinet  members,  and  would  by  law  succeed  to  the 
Presidency  in  case  of  the  death  or  removal  of  both  the 
President  and  the  Vice-President. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  the  financial  manager 
of  the  national  government.  Besides  having  charge  of  the 
planning  and  collection  of  the  revenues,  the  coin-  Treasury 
age  and  printing  of  money,  and  other  financial  Department 
matters,  he  also  controls  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  public  buildings  and  administers  the  life-saving  service 
and  the  public  health  service  of  the  national  government. 

The  Secretary  of  War  has  control,  under  the  President, 
of  the  military  establishment  of  the  nation.  He  also  ad- 
ministers river  and  harbor  improvements  and  war 
the  prevention  of  obstruction  to  navigation.  Department 
He  has  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  which 
supervises  the  civil  government  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippines. 

The  Attorney-General  is  the  head  of  the  Department  of 


26o  THE   COMMUNITY   AND  THE  CITIZEN 

Justice.  He  is  the  chief  law  officer  of  the  government, 
Department  representing  it  in  court  either  personally  or 
of  Justice  through  subordinates,  and  giving  legal  advice  to 
the  President  and  the  heads  of  the  other  departments. 

The  Postmaster  General  directs  the  Post  Office  Depart- 
Post  Office  ment.  Besides  administering  the  regular  postal 
Department  service  in  all  its  branches,  he  also  has  charge 
of  the  newly  established  postal  savings  system. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  superintends  all  matters  per- 
Uavy  taining   to  the  "construction,  manning,  equip- 

Department    ment,  and  employment  of  vessels  of  war." 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  has  under  his  administra- 
tion a  wide  variety  of  matters  pertaining  to  the  internal 

^  ,    welfare  of  the  nation.     Through  many  bureaus 

Department  '^  ■' 

of  the  and  divisions  of  the  department  he  has  charge 

intenor  ^£   ^j^^   public  lands,   the  care  of  the  national 

parks,  the  giving  of  patents  for  inventions,  the  pension- 
ing of  old  soldiers,  Indian  affairs,  education,  the  reclama- 
tion service,  the  geological  survey,  the  improvement  of 
methods  of  mining  and  the  safety  of  miners,  certain  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  territories  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  supervision  of  certain  hospitals  and  charitable  institu- 
tions in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

The  Secretary   of    Agriculture    promotes,  through    the 
various  divisions  of  his  department,   the  general  agricul- 
tural interests  of  the  country.      In  his  depart- 
Department  ■' 

ofAgri-  ment  are  bureaus  of  anmial  mdustry,  of    plant 

culture  industry,  of  soils,  of  chemistry,  of  entomology 

(for  the  study  of  insects  in  their  relations  to  agriculture), 
and  of  biology  (for  the  study  of  animals  and  birds  in  the 
same  relations).  He  also  administers  the  weather  bureau 
and  the  forest  service  and  assists  in  the  development  of 
good  roads  through  the  office  of  public  roads. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    NATION  261 

The  Secretary  of  Commerce  has  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment whose  business  is  to  promote  the  commercial  inter- 
ests of  the  nation.  The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Department 
Domestic  Commerce  aids  in  the  development  ofCom- 
of  the  manufacturing  industries  and  in  finding  ™^''" 
markets  for  them.  It  collects  information  regarding  the 
trade  conditions  at  home  and  abroad.  The  Department  of 
Commerce  also  includes  the  Bureau  of  Corporations,  the 
Census  Ikireau,  and  the  Bureaus  of  Lighthouses,  of  Navi- 
gation, and  of  Fisheries. 

.  The  Secretary  of  Labor  is  the  head  of  the  most  recently 
established  executive  department,  and  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  "  fostering,  promoting,  and  developing  Department 
the  welfare  of  the  wage  earners  of  the  United  o' Labor 
States,  improving  their  working  conditions,  and  advancing 
their  opportunities  for  profitable  employment."  Among 
the  important  bureaus  of  this  department  are  the  Bureaus 
of  Immigration  and  of  Naturalization,  and  the  Children's 
Bureau,  recently  established  to  "  investigate  and  report 
upon  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  children  and 
child  life  among  all  classes  of  our  people." 

This  brief  description  of  these  executive  departments 
will  serve  to  suggest  the  great  variety  of  ways  in  which 
the  national  government  is  looking  after  the  common  wel- 
fare, the  common  interests  of  the  national  community, 
touching  the  lives  of  all  of  us  at  many  points. 

The  Constitution  provides  for  a  system  of  federal  courts 
entirely  distinct  from  the  state  courts.  It  says,  "  The  judi- 
cial power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  The  judi- 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  *^*^ 
courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and 
establish  "  (Art.  Ill,  sec.  i ).  The  number  of  judges  in 
the   Supreme   Court   is  determined   by   Congress,   and  at 


262  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

present  is  nine.  They  meet  at  Washington  and  are  pre- 
sided over  by  one  of  their  number,  who  is  designated  as 
the  Chief  Justice.  In  addition  tp  the  Supreme  Court,  there 
are  nine  circuit  courts  of  appeals,  each  circuit  including 
several  states;  and  seventy-nine  district  courts.  There  is 
also  a  court  of  claims,  before  which  are  brought  claims 
against  the  government ;  and  a  court  of  customs  appeals. 
The  judges  of  all  the  federal  courts  are  appointed  by  the 
President  and  hold  office  "  during  good  behavior "  (Art. 
Ill,  sec.  i). 

The  powers  of  the  federal  courts  are  stated  in  the  Con- 
stitution (Art.  Ill,  sec.  2).     In  general,  they  may  be  said 

„  X      to  include  cases  of  a  national  or  interstate  char- 

Powers  of 

the  federal  acter.  A  case  first  brought  to  trial  before  a 
courts  gj.^^g  court  may  be   appealed  to  the  Supreme 

Court  of  the  United  States  when  the  Constitution,  the 
laws,  or  the  treaties  of  the  United  States  are  involved. 
Its  decisions  are  final  over  those  of  the  state  courts.  It  is 
the  final  authority  (under  the  people  themselves)  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Constitution.  It  may  declare  null 
and  void  an  act  of  Congress  or  any  state  law  which,  in  its 
opinion,  is  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution. 
It  might  seem  that  the  Supreme  Court  thus  has  power 
which  might  make  it  despotic,  and  give  it  control  over  the 
other  branches  of  the  government;  but  it  has  no  means  of 
enforcing  a  despotic  judgment.  That  must  be  done  by  the 
executive.  If  the  court  should  attempt  to  push  its  authority 
too  far,  it  would  find  itself  in  conflict  with  both  Congress 
and  the  executive.  At  the  elections  the  people  would  show 
whether  they  supported  the  court  or  the  other  branches 
of  government.  And,  finally.  Congress  has  the  weapon  of 
impeachment  by  which  offending  judges  may  be  removed. 
The  Supreme  Court  has  excited  the  admiration  of  the 


THE   GOVERNiMENT    OF   THE    NAriON  263 

world,  not  only  because  of  its  purpose  as  defender  of  the 
Constitution,  but  because  of  the  ability  and  integrity  its 
judges  have  shown  in  performing  their  duty.  It  has 
always,  with  one  or  two  possible  exceptions,  shown  a 
strong  disposition  to  render  its  opinions  in  accordance 
with  the  intentions  of  the  Constitution,  and  thus  to  be 
strictly  representative  of  the  people. 

Besides  the  thirteen  original  states  which  were  united 
under  the  Constitution  in  the  beginning,  the  United  States 
at  that  time  included  territorial  domains  extend-  ^ 

•    T->  •  T        u       ^^^  tern- 

ing  westward  to  the  Mississippi  River.  In  the  tories  of  the 
course  of  events  our  nation  expanded  by  the  Umted 
acquisition  of  new  territory  until  it  reached 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  domain  had  to  be  governed.  For 
this  purpose  Congress  organized  it  into /rm/^nVj- under  the 
direct  control  of  the  federal  government,  but  granting  to 
them  limited  powers  of  self-government  through  legisla- 
tures of  their  own.  To  these  territories  Congress  held  out 
the  promise  of  statehood,  when  their  population  and  other 
conditions  should  warrant  it,  on  exactly  equal  terms  with 
the  original  thirteen  states.  To-day  our  national  flag  con- 
tains forty-eight  stars,  and  no  part  of  continental  United 
States  (exclusive  of  Alaska)  remains  under  a  territorial 
form  of  government. 

The  territorial  expansion  of  the  United  States  has  con- 
tinued, however,  beyond  its  natural  continental  boundaries. 
Alaska  was  purchased  in  1867.  As  a  result  of  Territorial 
the  Spanish  war  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippine  expansion 
Islands  came  into  our  possession.  Hawaii  was  annexed 
about  the  same  time,  and  a  number  of  small  islands  in  the 
Pacific  have  been  acquired  as  naval  stations.  All  of  these 
territories  and  possessions  are  under  the  control  of  the 
federal  government. 


264  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

Alaska  and  Hawaii  are  regularly  organized  territories, 
just  as  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  were  before  they  were 
Alaska  and  recently  admitted  as  states.  The  government  of 
Hawaii  each  consists   of  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 

President  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate ;  a 
legislature  of  two  houses,  whose  members  are  elected  by 
the  people  of  the  territory ;  and  courts,  whose  judges  are 
appointed  by  the  President.  The  people  of  each  territory 
also  elect  a  delegate  to  Congress,  with  the  right  to  take 
part  in  its  debates  but  not  to  vote.  Congress  has  power  to 
admit  these  territories  to  statehood. 

The  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  other  islands  be- 
longing to  the  United  States  are  possessions  rather  than 
territories.  They  are  more  completely  controlled  by  the 
federal  government  than  Alaska  and  Hawaii. 

At  the  head  of  the  general  government  of  the  Philip- 
pines is  the  Philippine  Commission,  which  consists  of  a 
The  Philip-  Governor-General  and  eight  commissioners,  all 
pine  Islands  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  President  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  Five  members  of  the 
Commission  are  heads  of  executive  departments,  as  well 
as  having  legislative  powers.  The  other  four  members 
have  only  legislative  powers. 

The  Commission  also  constitutes  the  upper  house  of  the 
legislature,  the  lower  house  consisting  of  members  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  various  districts  into  which  the  civilized 
portion  of  the  islands  is  divided.  For  the  uncivilized  por- 
tion of  the  islands  the  Commission  of  nine  is  the  sole  legis- 
lative body. 

There  is  also  a  system  of  courts.  The  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  islands  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, while  those  of  the  lower  courts  are  appointed  by  the 
Governor-General  with  the  approval  of  the  Commission. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF   THE    NATION  265 

The  Philippines  also  have  two  resident  commissioners  to 
the  United  States,  with  seats  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives but  without  the  right  to  vote. 

The  Philippines  are  divided  into  a  number  of  provinces, 
each  of  which  is  governed  by  a  provincial  board  of  three 
members.  Each  province  consists  of  a  number  of  "  mu- 
nici|)alities,"  each  with  its  own  local  government. 

It  has  been  the  policy  of  the  federal  government  to 
give  to  the  Phili{)pine  Islands,  as  also  to  Porto  Rico,  as 
large  a  degree  of  self-government  as  possible,   c  u 

ir>  r>  fc>  I  '    Self-govern- 

and  to  educate  the  people  for  it  as  rapidly  as  ment  in  the 
may  be.     The  municipalities  are  almost  wholly  pp'^cs 

self-governing,  with  supervision  only  of  their  financial 
affairs  and  of  the  police.  Of  the  three  members  of  the 
provincial  boards  two  are  elected  by  the  people,  and  the 
third  (the  treasurer),  while  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
General,  is  often  a  Filipino.  In  the  general  government, 
five  of  the  nine  members  of  the  Commission  have  been 
Filipinos,  and  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature  is  elected 
by  the  people.  All  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  and  many 
of  the  higher  judges  are  natives.  In  1912  nearly  6000 
Filipinos  competed  in  the  examinations  for  civil  service 
positions,  and  two  thirds  of  these  positions  were  held  by 
them. 

In  appointing  the  first  Philippine  Commission  President 
McKinley  said,  "  The  commission  should  bear  in  mind  that 
the  government  which  they  are  establishing  is  j^gg^^g  ^^ 
designed   not  for  our  satisfaction  .  .  .  but   for  American 
the  happiness,  peace,  and  prosperity  of  the  Phil-       ® 
ippine  Islands."     A  great  deal  of  money  has  been  expended 
in  carrying  out  this  policy.     Most  notable,  perhaps,  of  all 
the  work  done  by  our  government  in  the  Philippines  is  that 
by  which  such  dread  diseases  as  cholera,  smallpox,  and  the 


266  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

bubonic  plague  have  been  fought  and  largely  stamped  out. 
In  addition  to  this  an  educational  system  has  been  estab- 
lished, roads  and  other  means  of  communication  improved, 
and  steps  taken  to  conserve  the  rich  natural  resources  of 
the  islands. 

The   government    of   Porto   Rico  is  very  similar  in  its 

plan  to  that  of  the  Philippines,  consisting  of  a  governor, 

appointed  by  the  President ;  a  legislature  of  two 

Porto  Rico        ,      ^  ^  ,  ^     ,  , 

houses,  —  an  upper  house  or  eleven  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  five  of  whom  must  be  natives,  and 
a  lower  house  elected  by  the  people ;  and  a  system  of 
courts.  There  are  also  self-governing  municipalities,  and  a 
resident  commissioner  to  the  United  States.  The  federal 
government  supervises  the  government  of  Porto  Rico  and 
of  the  Philippines  through  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs 
in  the  War  Department. 

Whether  the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico  shall  be  allowed 
to  pass  into  the  stage  of  territorial  government  with  the 
promise  of  future  statehood,  or  shall  be  trained  in  self- 
government  until  they  shall  be  granted  more  or  less  com- 
plete independence  of  the  United  States,  is  one  of  the 
questions  for  the  future  to  answer.  Each  course  has  its 
advocates. 

Our  smaller  insular  possessions,  such  as  Guam  and  the 
Samoan  Islands,  are  merely  naval  stations  and  are  governed 
by  the  naval  commandants  stationed  there.  The  District 
of  Columbia,  including  Washington,  the  seat  of  the  federal 
government,  is  governed  wholly  by  Congress  as  its  legisla- 
ture, and  by  executive  and  judicial  officers  appointed  by  the 
President.  Its  people  have  absolutely  no  powers  of  self- 
government. 


THE   GOVERNMENT    UF   THE    NATION  267 

FOR   INVESTIGATION 

1.  Report  on  the  story  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787. 
Also  on  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution  by  the  states. 

2.  Study  tlie  organization  of  Congress  as  provided  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. 

3.  Report  on  the  powers  of  tlie  speaker  of  die  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

4.  Why  should  bills  for  the   raising  of  revenue  originate  in  the 
House  ? 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  powers  of  the  President  as  contained  in  the 
Constitution. 

6.  What  are  the  several  executive  departments?     What  are  their 
duties?     Who  are  the  members  of  the  cabinet  at  the  present  time? 

7.  Study  the  powers  of  the  federal  courts  as  given  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. 

8.  Make  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of  tlie  different  checks  and 
balances  provided  in  the  organization  of  the  federal  government. 

9.  Report   on   the   work    accomplished    in   the   Philippine  Islands 
under  the  American  government.     Also  in  Porto  Rico. 

10.  Debate  the  question,  '*The  Philippine  Islands  should  ultimately 
be  granted  their  independence." 

1 1 .  Report  on  the  importance  of  Alaska  as  a  part  of  the  United 
States. 

REFERENCES 

Beard,  "American  Citizenship,"  chapters  VIII,  XV. 

Haskin,  "The  American  Government."  The  several  chapters  give 
popular  descriptions  of  the  work  of  the  various  branches  and  depart- 
ments of  the  federal  government. 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  XIII-XVII. 

Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XVI-XXI. 

Bryce,  "The  American  Commonwealth,"  vol.  I,  part  I. 

Fiske.  "The  Critical  Period  of  American  History,"  chapters  VT,  VII 
(the  framing  and  ratification  of  the  Constitution). 

"The  Territory  of  Alaska,  General  Information  Regarding,"  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office. 

"The  Philippine  Islands,"  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs, 
War  Department.     Government  Printing  Office. 

Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1913.  Government  Printing 
Office. 

Register  of  Porto  Rico  for  191 1,  and  the  Report  of  the  Governor  of 
Porto  Rico,  191 3.     Government  Printing  Office. 


CHAPTER   XXV 
HOW   THE   EXPENSES   OF   GOVERNMENT   ARE   MET 

All  this  machinery  of  government,  and  all  the  work 
that  it  does  for  the  people,  costs  the  people  a  great  deal. 
The  thousands  of  citizens  who  are  employed  in  conduct- 
ing the  affairs  of  government  must  be  paid  for  their 
services  —  although  there  are  some  offices  to  which  no 
salaries  are  attached.  There  must  be  office  buildings 
for  the  transaction  of  pubUc  business,  such  as  post  offices, 
capitol  buildings,  and  courthouses.  Schoolhouses,  parks, 
hospitals,  and  prisons  must  be  paid  for.  Materials  must 
be  bought  and  workmen  employed  to  build  navies,  to 
construct  roads  and  bridges,  to  pave  streets  and  lay 
sewers,  and  to  do  the  many  other  things  that  govern- 
ment does  for  us.  Occasionally,  some  great  emergency 
arises,  like  a  war,  which  demands  enormous  sums  of 
money. 

The  cost  of  the  national  government  each  year  is  much 
more  than  the  cost  of  all  the  state  governments  together ; 
-,,        ^  ,     but  the  cost  of  our  local  governments  throughout 

The  cost  of  fr>  & 

govern-  the  country  is,  each  year,  more  than  that  of 
™®°*  the   national   and  state    governments   together. 

This  may  be  surprising;  but  it  is  due  to  the  costliness 
of  paving  streets,  maintaining  police  and  fire  departments 
and  the  public  schools,  and  of  making  the  many  improve- 
ments necessitated  by  the  rapid  growth  of  our  cities. 
The  immense  cost  of  our  governments  is  beyond  our 
powers   of   imagination.      It   may   be   roughly   stated   as 

268 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT      269 

about  $2,000,000,000.  It  may  help  you  to  understand 
this  enor.nous  sum  of  money  if  you  will  calculate  how  long 
it  would  take  a  man  to  count  it,  supposing  that  he  works 
constantly  eight  hours  a  day,  and  counts  $  i  every  sec- 
ond, or  $60  a  minute. 

This  great  sum  of  money  must  be  raised  each  year. 
The  people  of  each  local  community  —  townshij),  county, 
or  city  —  must  pay  the  expense  of  their  local  government; 
the  people  of  the  whole  state  unite  in  paying  the  expense 
of  the  state  government;  and  the  people  of  the  nation 
contribute  to  the  expenses  of  the  national  government. 
They  do  this  chiefly  by  paying  taxes. 

Taxes  are  a  contribution  that  the  people  are  required  by 
the  government  to  pay  to  meet  the  cost  of  the  government. 
The  people  have  never  enjoyed  paying  taxes.  The  gov- 
ernment seems  to  put  its  hand  into  their  pockets  and 
take  what  belongs  to  them.  Taxation  has  often  seemed 
an  act  of  oppression,  and  it  may  become  so  when  it  is  im- 
posed on  the  people  without  their  consent,  and  when  it  is  for 
purposes  other  than  their  own  welfare.  Very  taxation  is 
light  taxes  imposed  on  the  American  colonists  notoppres- 
by  the  English  government  without  their  consent  ^^^^ 
seemed  oppressive  to  them  and  led  to  the  Revolution. 
Taxation  by  our  government  should  not  be  an  act  of  op- 
pression, because  the  people,  being  self-governing,  are  sup- 
posed to  tax  themselves  ;  and  because,  in  the  second  place, 
the  taxes  are  supposed  to  be  spent  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people  themselves.  It  is  only  just  that  a  person  shall  pay 
for  what  he  gets.  He  has  no  more  right  to  complain 
about  paying  for  the  protection  and  benefit  that  he  receives 
from  the  government  than  he  has  to  complain  about  pay- 
ing the  carpenter  for  building  his  house  —  provided,  of 
course,  that  the  government  performs  efficiently  and  eco- 


270  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

nomically  the  work  expected  of  it.  It  is  true  that  taxation, 
even  in  our  country  at  the  present  time,  may  sometimes  be 
unwise,  and  may  weigh  unjustly  upoYi  some  of  the  people 
for  reasons  that  will  be  mentioned  later  in  the  chapter  ;  but 
as  a  rule,  the  amount  that  each  person  has  to  pay  to  the 
government  in  taxes  is  insignificant  in  proportion  to  the 
great  benefit  that  he  receives. 

The  American  colonies  objected  to  taxation  by  the  Eng- 
lish government  because  they  had  no  voice  in  the  matter. 
Each  colony  believed  that  it  should  have  the  right  to  levy 
.  its  own  taxes  through  its  representatives  in  the 

seif-taxa-  colonial  legislature.  After  they  had  won  their 
fiderS*^  ^^  independence  they  still  objected  to  giving  up 
govern-  the  right  of  self-taxation  even  to  the  central 
™^'^*  government  of  the  Confederation.     When  the 

Congress  needed  money,  even  to  carry  on  the  war  for  in- 
dependence, it  could  only  ask  the  states  for  it,  and  had  no 
power  to  demand  it  or  to  collect  it.  The  taxing  power  rested 
with  the  state  legislatures,  composed  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people.  This  lack  of  power  on  the  part  of 
the  central  government  caused  great  confusion  and  distress 
both  during  and  after  the  Revolution,  because  the  states 
were  jealous  of  each  other,  and  their  interests  conflicted 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  could  not  always  be  depended 
on  to  provide  the  money  necessary  for  the  common  in- 
terests of  all.  It  soon  became  apparent  that,  if  the  new 
nation  were  to  continue  to  exist,  it  would  be  necessary  for 
the  central  government  to  have  the  power  to  tax/*^r  certain 
purposes.  This  was  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  framing 
a  new  Constitution,  creating  a  Congress  which  was  to  have 
power  "  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  .  .  .  to  pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  common  defense  arid  general  zvelfire  of  the 
United  States"  (Art.  I,  sec.  3,  clause  i).     But  the  Consti- 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       2/1 

tution  was  careful  to  provide  that  "  all  bills  for  raising 
revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives," 
which  is  the  branch  of  Congress  most  closely  representa- 
tive of  the  people  (Art.  I,  sec.  7).  For  all  other  mat- 
ters not  of  national  importance  the  taxing  power  rests 
with  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  state  legis- 
latures and  in  the  local  legislative  bodies,  such  as  the  city 
council  and  the  board  of  county  commissioners. 

Taxation  may  be  direct  or  indirect.  Direct  taxes  are 
those  which  are  paid  directly  and  finally  by  the  person 
against  whom  tlie  government  assesses  them.  Direct  and 
A  tax  on  land,  or  on  household  furniture,  is  indirect 
intended  to  be  borne  by  the  person  who  owns 
the  land  or  the  furniture.  Indirect  taxes,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  transferred  from  one  person  to  another.  A 
tax  on  imported  goods  may  be  levied  against  the  importer. 
But  he  adds  the  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  price  of  the 
goods  when  he  sells  them  to  dealers.  The  dealers,  in  turn, 
add  the  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  price  which  they  receive 
from  the  people  who  buy  the  goods.  When  you  buy  silk 
that  has  been  imported  from  France,  you  indirectly  pay 
a  small  part  of  the  tax  that  was  originally  assessed  against 
the  importer.  A  tax  on  houses  and  land,  which  is  usually 
considered  a  direct  tax,  may  become  indirect  if  the  owner 
rents  his  property  ;  for  he  may  make  the  rent  high  enough 
to  cover  the  tax,  which  thus  falls  on  the  renter. 

Almost  all  of  the  taxes  levied  and  collected  by  the  state 
and  local  governments  are  direct  taxes,  and  con-   ^j^g^t  taxa- 
sist  chiefly  of  taxes  on  property,  which  is  divided  tionby 
into  real  estate,  consisting  of  land  and  buildings,   ^^^  j^^^j 
and    personal     property,     including     furniture,   govem- 
jewelry,   money,    and    other  forms  of   movable 
property.     In  the  payment  of  the  tax  on  property  it   is 


272  THE   COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

intended  that  each  taxpayer  shall  pay  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  his  property.  The  man  who  owns  twice  as 
much  property  as  another  should  pay  twice  as  much  tax. 
Anything"  else  would  be  unjust. 

In  order  to  know  how  much  tax  a  citizen  must  pay,  it  is 

first  of  all  necessary  to  know  how  much   money  will  be 

needed  to  run  the  government  for  a  year.  This  is 

Theprelimi-     _  •        ,  i     r        ,  ,  i 

nary  esti-  detcrmmed  beforehand  by  the  heads  of  the  vari- 
mate  of         Q^g  departments  of  the  government,  who  make 

expenses  . 

an  estmiate  of  the  amount  of  money  needed. 
A  man  usually  considers  it  good  business  management  of 
his  private  affairs  when  he  comes  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year  with  a  surplus  on  hand,  something  saved  above  his 
expenses.  Not  so  with  the  government.  It  is  a  sign  of 
good  business  management  of  the  affairs  of  government 
when  the  treasury  is  practically  empty  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  not  considered  good  manage- 
ment to  levy  more  taxes  than  are  actually  needed.  A  good 
government  will  make  ^he  burden  of  taxation  just  as  light 
as  possible,  and  yet  cover  ah  expenses  so  that  there  will  be 
no  deficit  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  second  thing  to  be  found  out,  in  determining  the 
amount  of  tax  each  citizen  must  pay,  is  the  value  of  all  the 
The  assess-  property  in  the  community  in  which  the  tax  is  to 
ment  be  levied.    This  is  called  assessing  the  value  of 

the  property.  The  assessment  is  made  by  officers  known 
as  assessors,  who  are  sometimes  elected  by  the  people  and 
sometimes  appointed.  There  is  an  assessor  for  each  local 
division  of  the  state,  as  for  the  county,  or  township,  or  city. 
The  assessor  and  his  assistants  visit  and  inspect  the  prop- 
erty of  each  citizen  in  the  district,  question  the  owner,  and 
assess  a  value  on  the  property.  The  sum  of  the  individual 
assessments  makes  the  total  assessment  for   the  district; 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       273 

and  the  sum  of  the  valuations  of  all  the  districts  makes  the 
valuation  for  the  entire  state. 

Knowing  the  amount  of  money  to  be  expended  by  the 
government,  and  also  the  value  of  all  the  property  in  the 
community,  it  is  now  possible  to  find  the  rate  of  The  rate  of 
taxation — that  is,  the  percentage  of  his  prop-  taxation 
erty  that  each  citizen  must  pay.  This  is  done  by  dividing 
the  total  expenditures  for  the  year  by  the  total  assessment. 
Thus,  if  the  necessary  expenditures  amount  to  ^100,000 
and  the  total  assessment  amounts  to  $10,000,000,  the  rate 
of  taxation  is  found  by  dividing  100,000  by  10,000,000, 
which  gives  one  hundredth,  or  one  per  cent.  Each  tax- 
payer, therefore,  v^rould  have  to  pay  one  per  cent  of  the 
assessed  value  of  his  property.  A  property  owner  in  a 
city  must  pay  a  certain  rate  of  tax  toward  the  expenses  of 
the  city  government,  another  rate  toward  the  expenses 
of  the  state  government.  He  pays  his  entire  tax  into  the 
treasury  of  the  city  or  of  the  county,  where  it  is  divided 
into  the  shares  belonging  to  the  city,  the  county,  and  the 
state. 

It  is  not  easy  to  secure  a  perfectly  just  tax.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  real  worth  of  a  man's 
property,  even  when  it  can  all  be  seen.  One  Equaiiza- 
man's  property  may  be  assessed  too  high,  and  ^°^ 
another  man's  too  low.  In  order  to  correct  such  inequali- 
ties there  is  often  a  board  of  equalizatioti,  before  which 
complaints  may  be  brought,  and  bv  which  corrections  are 
made.  Sometimes  the  county  commissioners  act  in  this 
capacity.  In  the  assessment  of  the  state  taxes  also  there 
may  be  great  inequalities  among  the  different  counties,  due 
to  the  varying  accuracy  of  the  different  assessors.  There 
is  usually  a  state  board  of  equalization  to  adjust  these 
differences. 


274  THE   COMMUNITY   AND   THE   CITIZEN 

Such  inequalities  in  taxation  as  those  just  mentioned 
are  unfortunate,  but  they  are  accidental  and  can  usually  be 

corrected.  There  are  other  inequalities  due  to 
tax^'°aii°in-  ^ishonest  and  unpatriotic  attempts  on  the  part 
jury  to  of    some  citizens    to   avoid    their    fair  share   of 

mui^^'       taxation.     It  is  not  easy  to  avoid  paying  taxes 

on  buildings  and  land,  because  these  forms  of 
property  cannot  be  hidden ;  but  there  are  many  forms  of 
personal  property  that  can  easily  be  kept  out  of  sight,  and 
it  is  usually  those  who  can  best  afford  to  pay  who  have  the 
most  of  this  kind  of  property.  There  seems  to  be  a  feel- 
ing among  a  great  many  people  that  it  is  justifiable  to  "  get 
ahead  of  the  government"  by  avoiding  the  taxes  for  which 
it  asks.  In  reality  the  people  who  avoid  paying  their  just 
taxes  defraud,  not  the  government,  but  their  fellow-citizens 
and  neighbors.  In  their  attempt  to  get  something  for 
nothing,  they  shift  the  burden  of  taxation  on  others,  who 
are,  in  many  cases,  less  able  to  pay  than  they.  The  smaller 
the  amount  of  property  assessed  throughout  the  commu- 
nity, the  higher  the  rate  of  taxation  that  each  citizen  has 
to  pay.  Those  who  withhold  their  property  from  assess- 
ment not  only  shirk  their  responsibility,  but  also  increase 
the  burden  of  the  other  members  of  the  community. 

State  and  local  governments  impose  other  forms  of  taxes 
than  the  general  property  tax.  In  some  states  there  is  a 
s     "ai  /<?/A  or  capitation  tax,  which  is  a  tax  on  the  per- 

forms of  son  and  not  on  the  property.  It  varies  from 
taxation  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  dollars.  In  some  states  there  is  an 
income  tax,  levied,  not  on  the  amount  of  property  a  man 
has,  but  on  the  income  he  receives.  Some  states  have  an 
inheritance  tax,  levied  on  property  received  by  inheri- 
tance. There  is  a  corporation  tax,  levied  on  corporations 
doing  business  in  the  state.     In  addition  to  these  forms 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT 


275 


of  taxation,  there  are  revenues  derived  by  state  and  lo- 
cal governments  from  various  kinds  of  licenses, .fees,  and 
special  assessments.  Men  who  conduct  certain  Licenses 
kinds  of  business  must  pay  the  government  of  ^^^  ^^^ 
state  or  locality  a  license  fee,  as  in  the  case  of  peddlers, 
saloon  keepers,  and  pawnbrokers.  Such  licenses  are  in- 
tended, usually,  to  restrict  such  businesses  as  well  as  to 
secure  a  revenue.  In  most  cities  a  license  fee  must  be 
paid  on  all  vehicles,  including  bicycles.  When  sewers  are 
laid  or  roads  built,  they  are  often  paid  for,  in  part  at  least, 
by  special  assessments  against  the  property  owners  most 
directly  benefited.  Finally,  there  are  fines  collected  in 
the  courts,  which  are  turned  into  the  public  revenues. 
These  special  taxes  and  fees  are  often  devoted  to  special 
purposes,  as  wlien  the  license  fees  on  vehicles  are  used  to 
keep  up  the  roads  and  pavements,  or  when  saloon  licenses 
are  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools. 

Some  kinds  of  property  may  be  exempt  from  taxation ; 
that  is,  no  tax  is  levied  against  them.  For  example,  pub- 
lic school  buildings  and  property   are  exempt. 

_,,  ,  ',  r       1,  ,  ,■       Exemptions 

Church  property,  the  property  of  colleges,  public 
hospitals,  public  buildings  such  as  courthouses,  charitable 
institutions,  and  other  forms  of  property  of  a  public  char- 
acter, used  for  the  public   benefit   and  not  for  profit,  are 
exempt  from  taxation. 

While  the  state  and  local  governments  derive  most  of 
their  revenues  from  direct  taxation,  the  national  gov- 
ernment derives  most  of  its  revenues  from  in-  indirect  tax- 
direct  taxation.     The  Constitution  permits  Con-  ^tion  by  the 

1  1       1       T  1     •     T  natibnal 

gress  to    levy  both   direct    and    indirect   taxes.   govern- 
Direct  taxes  have  been  levied  by  the  national  ™«°t 
government  several  times  in  our  history,  but  they  have 
been   objected    to  in    the   past   for  two  reasons.     In  the 


2/6  THE    COMMUNITY    AND    THE    CITIZEN 

first  place,  the  Constitution  provides  that  direct  taxes 
"  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  .  .  . 
according  to  their  respective  numbers."  That  is,  if  the 
national  government  should  decide  to  levy  a  tax  on  land, 
it  would  first  determine  how  much  of  a  tax  is  needed  al- 
together, and  would  then  call  on  the  states  to  pay  their 
share  in  proportion  to  their  population.  A  state  having 
twice  the  population  of  another  would  also  pay  twice  the 
tax  of  the  other.  In  practice  it  has  been  found  very  diffi- 
cult to  apportion  a  tax  in  this  way,  and  do  it  justly. 
Another  reason  why  the  national  government  prefers  to 
Direct  fed-  employ  indirect,  rather  than  direct,  taxation  is 
erai  taxes  because  indirect  taxes  can  be  collected  so  much 
more  easily  than  direct  taxes,  and  without  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  people  so  much.  The  people  prefer  local 
self-taxation,  and  might  feel  more  antagonistic  to  a  tax 
collector  representing  the  far-away  central  authority.  In 
191 3,  however,  the  sixteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitu- 
tion became  effective,  which  gives  Congress  power  to  levy 
a  direct  tax  on  incomes  of  corporations  and  private  per- 
sons. Unmarried  persons  with  an  income  of  less  than 
$3000,  and  married  couples  with  an  income  of  less  than 
$4000,  are  exempt  from  this  tax. 

The  national  government  raises  most  of  its  money  by 
means  of  import  duties  and  excise  taxes.  Import  duties. 
Imports  and  ^^  already  explained,  are  taxes  on  imported 
excises  goods,  paid  at  first  by  the  importer,  but  finally 

by  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the  country  who  use  the  goods. 
This  form  of  taxation  is  very  little  felt  by  the  people,  and 
yet  very  large  sums  of  money  are  raised  by  means  of  it. 
The  excise  is  a  tax  levied  on  goods  manufactured  in  this 
country.  This  form  of  taxation  was  once  very  unpopular, 
because  it  seemed   a  restriction    on    the    industry  of   the 


THE  EXPENSES  OF  GOVERNMENT       277 

country  by  the  national  government.  The  chief  manu- 
factures taxed  in  this  way  are  alcoholic  liquors  and  tobacco 
in  its  various  forms.  This  tax  also,  thouj^h  at  first  paid  by 
the  manufacturers,  is  distributed  among  the  people  who 
use  the  articles. 

For  the  collection  of  import  duties  all  imported  goods 
are  required  to  pass  through  customs  houses  at  important 
cities,  mostly  on  the  borders  of  the  country,  but  collection 
sometimes  in  the  interior,  where  the  goods  are  «*  <i"ties 
inspected  by  customs  officers  and  the  taxis  collected.  F"or 
the  collection  of  excise  taxes  the  country  is  divided  into 
mtcnial  revenue  districts,  in  each  of  which  is  a  revenue 
collector  with  assistants,  who  visit  distilleries,  breweries, 
and  tobacco  factories  to  collect  the  tax. 

Additional  revenue  is  obtained  by  the  nntional  govern- 
ment through  the  sale  of  public  lands  and  the  receipts  of 
the  postal  service. 

In  time  of  war,  or  to  pay  for  great  permanent  improve- 
ments like  the  Panama  Canal,  or  to  meet  a  deficit  in  the 
treasury,  it  becomes  necessary  to  borrow  large  Borrowing 
sums  of  money.  Borrowing  under  such  circum-  money 
stances  is  justifiable  for  two  reasons.  First,  because  an 
increase  in  the  taxes  cannot  be  secured  quickly  enough  to 
meet  the  emergency.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  just  that 
the  expense  of  a  great  war  or  of  a  permanent  improvement 
should  be  distributed  over  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
because  future  generations  are  affected  by  it  as  much  as 
the  present.  The  money  is  borrowed,  therefore,  and  is 
paid  back  by  taxation  during  a  long  period  of  years.  The 
usual  method  of  borrowing  is  by  the  sale  of  government 
bonds,  which  are  bought  by  individuals  and  financial  insti- 
tutions, And  upon  which  the  government  pays  interest.  It 
is  then  necessary  for  the  government  to  lay  aside  a  fund 


2/8  THE    COMMUNITY   AND    THE    CITIZEN 

from  its  revenues  during  a  period  of  years  to  pay  off  its 
indebtedness. 

There  has  never  been,  in  the  national  finances,  the  same 
careful  adjustment  between  receipts  and  expenditures  that 
we  now  find,  for  example,  in  many  of  our  city  governments. 
The  revenues,  are  a  more  or  less  uncertain  quantity,  because 
it  cannot  be  told  in  advance  with  accuracy  what  the  im- 
ports will  amount  to,  nor  what  the  incomes  of  corporations 
and  individuals  will  be.  Unexpected  deficits  and  surpluses 
appear  in  the  treasury.  Appropriations  are  often  made 
recklessly  by  Congress,  sometimes  resulting  in  insufficient 
funds  for  important  work,  sometimes  in  extravagant  ex- 
penditures for  purposes  of  little  general  value.  There  is 
need  for  improvement  in  the  business  methods  of  the 
national  government  that  will  result  at  once  m  greater 
economy  and  greater  efificiency. 

FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  Try  to  find  out,  from  printed  reports  of  the  treasurer,  what  the 
annual  expense  of  your  city  (or  county  or  township)  is.  Make  a  list 
of  some  of  the  more  important  items  of  expense,  such  as  salaries,  build- 
ings, streets,  etc. 

2.  Find  out  what  the  rate  of  taxation  is  for  your  city;  for  your 
county  ;   for  your  state. 

3.  How  is  the  expense  of  the  public  schools  met  in  your  commu- 
nity? 

4.  Is  there  a  tax  on  vehicles  in  your  community?  To  what  use  is 
this  money  put? 

5.  What  kinds  of  business  are  conducted  in  your  community  under 
license?  What  is  the  amount  of  the  saloon  license?  To  what  use  is 
the  revenue  from  this  source  put? 

6.  Obtain  a  tax  list  from  the  office  of  the  assessor  and  note  the 
items  listed. 

7.  How  is  the  expense  of  constructing  a  sewer  met  in  your  com- 
munity?    Of  paving  a  street? 

8.  Is  there  any  limit  to  the  amount  of  taxes  that  your  city  council 
(or  county  commissioners)  may  levy? 


THE    EXPENSES    OF   GOVERNMENT  279 

9.  Does  your  city  charter  limit  the  amownt  that  your  city  may 
borrow?  Does  the  state  constitution  limit  the  amount  that  can  be  bor- 
rowed by  the  state?     If  so,  why? 

10.  To  whom,  and  at  what  times,  are  the  taxes  paid  in  your  com- 
munity? 

11.  Report  on  the  practice  of ''log-rolling"'  in  Congress.     What 
are  its  effect?? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  the '' single  tax"?     What  are  the  arguments 
for  it  ? 

REFERENCES 

Hart,  "Actual  Government,"  chapters  XXI-XXII. 
Forman,  "Advanced  Civics,"  chapters  XXXV-XXXIX. 
Fiske,  "Civil  Government,'"  chapter  1. 
Wilcox,  "The  American  City,'"  chapters  XII.  XIII. 


APPENDIX 

THE    CONSTITUTION    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES    OF 
AMERICA 

Preamble 

Wk,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the 
common  defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  bless- 
ings of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish 
this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE   I 

Z^:tion  I 

All  /Tj^islative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress 
c'  :ne  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives. 

Section   // 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the 
electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  [and  direct  taxes] '  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  [which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other 

1  Modified  by  Amendment  XVI. 
281 


282         CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

persons.]  ^  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years 
after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by 
law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for 
every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Represen- 
tative ;  [and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight, 
Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five.  New 
York  six.  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Mary- 
land six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and 
Georgia  three.]  ^ 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section   IH 

1.  [The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years  ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.]-' 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the 
first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year ;  of  the  second  class,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if 
vacancies  happen  by  resignation  or  otherwise  during  the  recess  of  the 
legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  ap- 
pointments until  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then 
fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not.  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  choseu. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President 

1  The  clauses  in  brackets  have  been  superseded  by  Amendments  XIII  and  XIV. 

■■^  Superseded  by  Amendment  XVII. 


CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         283 

pro  tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exer- 
cise the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation. 
When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 
shall  preside :  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than 
to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office 
of  honor,  tnist,  or  profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the  party  con-  , 
victed  shall,  nevertheless,  be  lialjle  and   subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section   IV 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators 
and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature 
thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such 
regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meetings  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section    V 

1.  Each   house  shall   be    the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  • 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attenaance  of  • 
absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  • 
house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  ' 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judg-  • 
ment  require  secrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either ' 
house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present, ' 
be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other 
place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 


284        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

Section  VI 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation 
for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all  cases  except  treason,  felony, 
and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  atten- 
dance at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time ;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of 
either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as 
on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  tiie  United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he 
shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of 
that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with 
the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  recon- 
sidered, and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  house  it  shall  become  a 
law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined 
by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against 
the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively.  If 
any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not 
be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 


CONSTITUTION    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES         2S5 

United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved 
by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and 
limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Sectiofi  VIII 

The  Congress  shall  have  power : 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the 
debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  tiie 
United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws 
on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  re- 
spective writings  and  discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punisli  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations  ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  r^pel  invasions  ; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia, 
«nd  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appoint- 


286         CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  cf 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over 
all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals^ 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings ;  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any 
depaitmeat  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX 

1 .  [The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but 
a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  person.]^ 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended, 
unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  [or  other  direct]  2  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro- 
portion to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office, 
or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

1  A  temporary  clatise  no  longer  in  force.         2  Modified  by  Amendment  XVI. 


CONSTITUTION    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES        287 

Section  X 

1 .  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation ; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit ; 
make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ; 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obliga- 
tion of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  im- 
posts or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce  of  all 
duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be 
for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws 
shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  duty 
of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or 
engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as 
will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II 

Section  I 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  terra  of  four 
years,  and  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term, 
be  elected  as  follows  : 

2.  Each  State  shrll  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress ; 
but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust 
or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each ;  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  cf  the  Senate. 
The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
shaH  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 


288         CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who 
have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House 
of  Representatives  shaU  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest 
on  the  list  tlie  said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President. 
But  in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  pur- 
pose shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President. 
But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]  ^ 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that 
office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and 
been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring 
what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  ac- 
cordingly until  the  disability  be  removed  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during 
the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not 
receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States 
or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the 
following  oath  or  affirmation : 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability 
preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

1  Superseded  by  Amendment  XII. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES        289 

Section  JI 

1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Army  and 
Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  tiie  militia  of  the  several  St?.tes 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the 
executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their 
respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper, 
in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  .Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the 
state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures 
as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  dis- 
agreement between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  re- 
ceive ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that 
the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  ofl^cers  of 
the  United  States. 

Section  IV 

The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction 
of  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors 


290        CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   III 
Section  I 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  J*ates  shall  be  vested  in  one  Su- 
.  preme  Court,  and  in  sucli  inferior  courts  .s  the  Congress  may  from  time 
to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  jud^^s  both  of  the  supreme  and 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall, 
at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  11 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to 
all  cises  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  controversies  between  two 
or  more  States;  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State;  be- 
.tween  citizens  of  different  States;  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citizens,  or,  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases,  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned, 
the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and 
fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

3-  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be 
by  jury ;  and  slich  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes 
shall  have  been  committed  ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State, 
the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law 
have  directed. 

Section  III 

1 .  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort. No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  ojjen  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or 
forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attained. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES        291 

ARTICLE  IV 

Section  1 

Full  Faith  and  credit  ^hall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Con- 
gress may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts, 
records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  tiie  effect  thereof. 

Section  II 
T.    The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall, 
on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled, 
he  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
■crime. 

3.  [No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  reg- 
ulation therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due.]  ^ 

Section  III 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union  ; 
but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  other  State ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  States  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures 
of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  need- 
ful rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  be- 
longing to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States  or  of 
any  particular  State. 

Section  IV 
The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against 
invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when 
tlie  legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

1  Superseded  by  Amendmeut  XIII. 


292        CONSTITUTION    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE    V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  ol  the  several  States,  shall 
call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  wliich  in  either  case  shall 
be  valid  to  ail  intents  and  purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when 
ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States, 
or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress,  provided 
that  [no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and 
fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article ;  and  that]  ^  no 
State,  without  its  consent,  shail  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE   VI 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall 
be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  ^hall  be  bound  thereby, 
anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not- 
withstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial 
officers  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be 
bound  by  oath  or  afiirmation  to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no  reli- 
gious test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   VII 
The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratify- 
ing the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present, 
the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 

1  Temporary  in  its  nature. 


CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES         293 

thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Independ- 
ence of  the    United    States  of  America  the  twelfth.     In  witness 
whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 
George  Washington,  President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 
New  Hampshire  —  John  Langdon,  Nicholas  Oilman. 
Massachusetts  —  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King. 
Connecticut  —  William  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sherman. 
New  York  —  Alexander  Hamilton. 
New  Jersey  —  William  Livingston,  David  Brcarley,  William  Paterson, 

Jonathan  Dayton. 
Pennsylvania  —  Benjamin  Franklin,  Thomas  Mifflin,  Robert  Morris, 

George  Clymer,  Thomas  Fitzsimons,  Jared  Ingersoll,  James  Wilson, 

Gouverneur  Morris. 
Delaware — George    Read,  Gunning   Bedford,  Jr.,  John  Dickinson, 

Richard  Bassett,  Jacol)  Broom. 
Maryland  —  James  McHenry,  Daniel  of  St.  Thomas  Jenifer,  Daniel 

Carroll. 
Virginia — John  Blair.  James  Madison,  Jr. 
North  Carolina  —  W'illiam  Blount,  Richard  Dobbs  Spaight,  Hugh 

Williamson. 
South   Carolina  —  John    Rutledge,   Charles   Cotesworth    Pinckney, 

Charles  Pinckney,  Pierce  Butler. 
Georgia  —William  Few,  Abraham  Baldwin. 

Attest :  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 

ARTICLES 
in   addition    to  and    amendment  of  the   Constitution    of  the    United 
States  of  America,  proposed  by  Congress  and  ratified  by  the  Legisla- 
tures of  the  several  States,  pursuant  to  the  Fifth  Article  of  the  Consti- 
tution. 

ARTICLE   1 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech  or  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble, 
and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE   II 
A  well-regulated   militia   being  necessary  to   the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the   people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not   be 
infringed. 


294         CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

ARTICLE   III 
No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE   IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated, and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported 
by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be 
searched  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V 
No  persons  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infa- 
mous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  ex- 
cept in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use  with, 
out  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE    VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  Stale  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature 
and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against 
him,  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor, 
and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE   VII 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE   VIII 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 


CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         295 

ARTICLE   IX 
The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE   X 
The  powers  not  delegated  to  tlie  United  States  by  the  Constitution, 
•nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively 
Of  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XI 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  constnied  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  aji^ainst 
one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII 
I.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which 
lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceed- 
ing three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  rep- 
resentation from  each  State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And 
if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 


296        CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional    disability  of  the 
President. 

2.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President 
shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the 
Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of 
the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to 
the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States  or  any  place  subject  to  their 
jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV 

Section  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any 
law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States ;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within 
its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  according  to  tlieir  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed  But  when 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress, 
the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the 
legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such 
State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebeilion,  or  other 
crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  pro- 
portion which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole 
number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES         297 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, or  elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil 
or  military,  under  the  United  States  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 
the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  dis- 
ability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not 
be  questioned.  But  neither  tlie  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  as- 
sume or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  eman- 
cipation of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall 
be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appro- 
priate legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE   XV 

Section  i.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall 
not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  race,  color,  or  previo^K  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  sli  xll  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE    XVI 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several 
States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE   XVII 

The  Senate  of  the  L^'nited  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote.     The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 


298         CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

qualifications  required  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  legislature. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies :  Provided,  That  the  legislature  of  any  State  may 
empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until 
the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the 
Constitution. 


APPENDIX 


299 


OWNERSHIP   OF    HOMES   IN    CITIES    HAVING.    IN    1910, 
100,000   INHABITANTS   OK   MOKE 


Cilies 

Owned 

Rented 

Per  cent  Owned 

Albany,  N.  Y 

6.338 

17,189 

26.9 

Atlanta,  ('.a.      .     . 

8,580 

26,213 

24.7 

Baltimore.  Mtl. 

38.400 

75-381 

33-7 

Birniinii;ham,  Ala. 

8,910 

21,1  15 

29.7 

Bo.ston,  Mass.   .      . 

23.496 

114,312 

17. 1 

Bridjicport.  Conn. 

4,671 

16.504 

22.1 

Buffalo.  N.  Y.    .     . 

30.592 

58.745 

34-2 

Cambridiije,  Mass. 

4,282 

18.378 

18.9 

Chicago.  111.      .     . 

12  1.447 

342.472 

26.2 

Cincinnati,  Ohio    . 

19,965 

66153 

23.2 

Cleveland,  Ohio     . 

43-473 

80,005 

35-2 

Columbus,  Ohio     . 

14.862 

26.787 

35-7 

Dayton,  Ohio    . 

10,596 

17,244 

38.1 

Denver,  Col.      .     . 

•7774 

31.342 

36.2 

Detroit,  Mich. 

40,471 

57.831 

41.2 

Fall  Kiver,  Mass.  . 

4.3 '7 

19.926 

17.8 

Grand  Rapid?;,  Mich. 

12.599 

13,690 

47-9 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

19.036 

38.702 

33-0 

Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

1 1.209 

44.394 

20.2 

Kan.sas  City,  Mo.  . 

20.71 1 

36.537 

36.2 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.  . 

34.159 

42,202 

44-7 

Louisville.  Ky-  • 

13.603 

37,621 

26.6 

Lowell,  Ma.ss.    . 

4.848 

16,761 

22.4 

.Memphi.s.  Tenn.     . 

7.541 

22.363 

25.2 

.Milwaukee.  Wis.    . 

28.824 

50.352 

36.4 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

24.539 

36.195 

40.4 

Nashville,  Tenn.    . 

7.879 

17,868 

30.6 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

7,326 

21.394 

25.5 

New  Orleans,  Lii. 

16.273 

54,113 

23- 1 

New  York.  N.  Y.  . 

117,740 

884,616 

11.7 

Manhattan  Borough 

14,103 

468, gzy 

29 

Bronx  Borough 

I2,0yi 

80,114 

131 

300 


APPENDIX 


OWNERSHIP   OF   HOMES   IN   CITIES    HAVING,   IN    1910, 
100,000   INHABITANTS   OR    MORE  —  Contmueci 


Cities 


New  York,  N.  Y.  — Continued 
Brooklyn  Borough 
Queens  Borough     . 
Richmoml  Borough     . 

Newark,  N.  J 

Oakland,  Cal 

Omaha,  Neb 

Paterson,  N.  J 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Portland,  Ore 

Providence,  R.  I 

Richmond,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

San  Francisco,  Cal.     .     . 

Scranton.  Pa 

Seattle,  Wash 

Spokane,  Wash 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Washington,  D.  C.     . 

Worcester,  Mass 


Owned 


63,842 
21.176 
6,548 
15,119 
16,870 
10,095 

6,538 
83,262 
29,983 
18,509 
10.071 

6,255 
19,321 
37,761 
16,665 
27,500 

9,711 
22,167 
11,165 
12,202 
17,170 
17.375 

7.431 


Rented 


284,739 
40,020 
10,816 

60,473 
19,263 
15,269 
20,714 
229,354 
77,288 
21,495 
38,276 
19,801 
26,525 

113,515 
23,826 

55,946 
16,116 
27,245 
10.610 

18,547 
21,609 
51,607 
23,057 


Per  cent  Owned 


18.3 

34-6 

37-7 
20.0 
46.7 
39-8 
24.0 
26.6 
28.0 
463 
20.8 
24  o 
42.1 
25.0 
41.2 
33-0 
37-6 

449 
51-3 
39-7 
44-3 

25.2 
24.4 


IMMIGRATION   BY   DECADES,    1821    TO    1913 


1821  to 

1830  .  . 

•   •    143,439 

1871  to  1880  .  .  . 

2,812.191 

1831  to 

1840  .  . 

•  •  599' 1 25 

1881  to  1890  .   .   . 

5,246.613 

1 841  to 

1850  .  . 

•  •  ^713.251 

1891  to  1900  .   .   . 

3.687,564 

1851  to 

i860  .  . 

.  .2,598,214 

1901  to  1910  .   .  . 

8,795,386 

1 861  to 

1870  .  . 

.  .  2,314,824 

191 1  to  1 91 3  (3  years) 

3,090,912 

apim:mjix 


301 


IMMKiRATION    AND    EMIGRATION    FOR    THE    YEAR 
ENDING  JUNE   30,    1913 


Countries 


Austria 

Hungary 

Belgium 

Bulgaria.  Servia,  and  Montenegro    . 

Denmark 

France,  including  Corsica 

German  Empire 

Greece 

Italy,  including  -Sicily  and  Sardinia  . 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal,    including   Cape    Verde    and 

Azores  Islands 

Roumania 

Russian  Empire  and  Finland       .     . 
Spain,    including  Canary  and  Balearic 

Islands 

Sweden 

.Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe 

United  Kingdom  : 

England 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Wales 

Other  Europe 

Total  Europe 

China 

Japan     

India 

Turkey  in  Asia     .  • 

Other  Asia 

Total  Asia 


Immigrant  Aliens 
I       Admitted 


161.525 

J33<236 

8.043 

1,988 

7,016 

•0.374 

24,270 

311-393 
7.472 
9.525 

16,204 

2,502 

340.461 

7.610 
18,872 

4.361 
15.093 

48,016 

30,829 

16.105 

3.178 

411 


1,216,251 


2.338 
9.251 

'93 

27,187 

1,051 

40,020 


Emigrant  Aliens 
Departed 


3'. 237 

32/^' 

903 

9.739 

649 

3.905 

5.294 

31,017 

91.696 

640 

1,854 

2,083 

345 
30.489 

2.316 

2,316 

507 

4.992 

6,582 

3.322 

2-379 

177 

16 


265,149 


2,426 
778 
240 

1,404 
107 


4.955 


302 


APPENDIX 


IMMIGRATION    AND    P:MIGRATI0N    FOR    THE    YEAR 
ENDING   JUNE    30,    1913  —  Continued 


Countries 

Imtiiigrant  Aliens 
Admitted 

Emigrant  Aliens 
Departed 

Africa 

1.539 

220 

Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand 

1.384 

704 

Pacific  islands  (not  specified)      .     .     . 

125 

29 

British  North  America  .     .     . 

81,002 

52,433 

Central  America        .... 

1,674 

557 

Mexico 

12,994 

1,051 

South  America 

4,828 

1,472 

West  Indies 

14,312 

4,535 

Other  countries    .... 

24 

15 

Grand  total    .... 

1,374,153 

331,120 

IMMIGRATION   AND    EMIGRATION    BY    STATES   FOR 
YEAR    ENDING   JUNE   30,    1913 


States 


Alabama     .     .      .     . 

Alaska   

Arizona  .  .  .  . 
Arkansas  .  .  .  . 
California  .  .  .  . 
Colorado  .  .  .  . 
Connecticut  .  .  . 
Delaware  .  .  .  . 
District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia       .     .     .     . 

Hawaii 

Idaho     

Illinois 


Immigrant  Aliens 

Emigrant  Aliens 

Admitted 

Departed 

1.266 

401 

829 

107 

4.227 

648 

408 

61 

35-235 

8,568 

6,443 

1.742 

40,934 

6.796 

2,208 

260 

1,882 

388 

5,758 

2,746 

852 

171 

77'9^ 

723 

1,887 

409 

123,936 

25,535 

APPENDIX 


303 


IM.MIC RATION    AND    EMIGRATION    BY    STATES    FOR 
YEAR    ENDING    JUNE    30,    kjit,— Coninuitui 


States 


Indiann  .... 

Iowa 

Kansas  .... 
Kentucky    .     . 
Louisiana    .      .     . 
Maine     .     .     .     . 
Maryland    .     . 
Mas.sachu.setts 
Michigan    .     . 
Minnesota  . 
Mississippi       .     . 
Missouri      .     .     . 
Montana 
Nebra.ska     . 
Nevada  .     .     .     . 
New  Hampshire  . 
New  Jersey 
New  Mexico    . 
New  York  . 
North  Carolina     . 
North  Dakota 
Ohio       .      .      .     . 
Oklahoma  . 
Oregon  .... 
Pennsylvania  . 
Philippine  Islands 
Porto  Rico 
Rhode  Island  . 
South  Carolina     . 
South  Dakota  . 
Tennessee  . 
Te.xas     .      .     .      . 
Utah       .      .     .      . 


Immigrant  Aliens 
Admitted 

Emigrant  Aliens 

Imparted 

1  5.099 

4.055 

9-524 

1,464 

4.034 

633 

818 

187 

1,912 

490 

7.361 

734 

9432 

1,238 

•15,773 

18,356 

68,997 

8,045 

21,762 

3,066 

443 

50 

13,002 

3.5^7 

6,558 

990 

7,016 

739 

1,082 

418 

8,922 

1,732 

70,152 

13.378 

830 

277 

376,011 

88,937 

450 

83 

4,853 

240 

72,902 

I3'985 

1,121 

247 

5,590 

1,422 

2 « 5.375 

47.389 

17 

-J 

984 

883 

15^470 

2,762 

286 

55 

1,818 

210 

887 

•43 

12,240 

901 

3.363 

1,384 

304 


APPENDIX 


IMMIGRATION   AND   EMIGRATION    BY    STATES    FOR 
YEAR   ENDING   JUNE   30,    \()\i  — Continued 


States 


Immigrant  Aliens  Emigrant  Aliens 
Admitted         \  Departed 


Vermont  . 
Virginia 
Washington 
West  Virginia 
Wisconsin  . 
Wyoming  . 
Unknown    . 

Total 


INDKX 


Accident,  protection  against,  32; 
injury  by,  79. 

Accidents,  prevention  of,  78-80; 
industrial,  80. 

Administrative  departments,  of  cities, 
'33>  -34;  "f  t^he  state,  246, 
247 ;  of  the  national  government, 
259-261. 

Administrative  duties  of  local  gov- 
ernments, 185,  226. 

Advertisements,  1O2. 

Agriculture,  Department  of,  104,  1 2S, 
260. 

Alaska,  49,  263,  264. 

Aliens,  43,  189. 

Amendment,  of  state  constitutions, 
242;  of  United  States  Constitu- 
tion, 253  ;  of  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, 252. 

American  Museum  of  Safety,  79. 

Americans,  making  of,  36-45. 

.\ndre,  18. 

.\ppointmcnt  of  officers,  198,  210, 
211,  226,  235;  of  federal  judges, 
262;  governor's  power  of,  247, 
249;  President's  power  of,  257, 
258. 

.Apportionment,  254. 

.Vrbor  Day,  162. 

Architecture,  165. 

.\rizona,  264. 

.\rmy,  81,  82;   health  work  of,  67. 

Art,  154. 

.\rticlcs  of  Confederation,  252,  256. 

Assemblage,  freedom  of,  147,  148. 

.Assessment,  272. 

.Assessments,  special,  275. 

-Assessors,  272. 


.Assimilation  of  immigration,  42. 

.Asylums,  1 74. 

.Attorney  General,  state,  247  ;  United 

States,  259. 
.Auditor,  state,  246. 
.Australian  ballot,  206. 


203  ;    Australian,  206  ; 
the,    206 ;     scratching. 


Ballot,  short, 
secrecy   of 

193- 

Banking  system,  national,  loi. 

Banks,  savings,  1 27  ;  postal  savings, 
126. 

Beauty,  desire  for,  1 7  ;  in  the  pioneer 
home,  24;  what  the  community 
does  for,  152-166. 

Berkeley,  Governor,  135. 

Bill,  legislative,  244;    of  rights,  243. 

Billboards,  162. 

Bird  life,  protection  of,  131. 

Bonds,  government,  277. 

Borrowing  money,  277. 

Boss,  political,  205,  245. 

Boston,  10,  107,  118,  163. 

Boulevards,  163. 

Builders  of  the  nation,  93. 

Building,  ordinances,  74;  depart- 
ment, 234. 

Buildings,  construction  of,  73. 

Bureaus  of  municipal  research,  212. 

Business  life,  88-96;  regulation  of, 
77,  78,  08-104;   waste  in,  124. 

By-laws,  218. 

By-products,  124. 

Cabinet,  247,  257,  259-261. 
California,  225,  226,  231. 
Campaign,  election,  194. 


30s 


3o6 


INDEX 


Canals,  112,  113. 

Capitation  tax  (see  Poll  Tax). 

Caucus,  192. 

Census  biureau,  261. 

Charity,  175,  176;  organization,  176. 

Charter,  city,  185,  230,  231 ;  colonial, 
242. 

Checks  and  balances,- 187,  243. 

Chemistry,  bureau  of,  104. 

Chicago,  12,  60,  65,  73,  74,  118,  132. 

Child  labor,  33,  99. 

Children,  as  citizens,  43. 

Children's  bureau,  261. 

Chinese,  exclusion  of,  41. 

Church,  the,  19,  169,  170,  171,  175. 

Cincinnati,  73. 

Circuit  courts,  248. 

Cities,  geographical  conditions  of 
growth,  10;  home  life  in,  30,  31; 
foreigners  in,  38,  42 ;  subdivisions 
of,  51 ;  exercise  right  of  eminent 
domain,  53 ;  health  in,  59,  60,  63- 
65;  fire  protection  in,  72,  73; 
police  in,  76  ;  street  lighting  in,  77  ; 
transportation  in,  115-118;  edu- 
cation in,  144,  145 ;  beauty  in, 
155-166;  charity  in,  174-176; 
primary  districts  of,  192;  merit 
system  in,  211,  236;  growth  of, 
229;  problems  of,  229;  self-gov- 
ernment of,  230;  relation  of,  to 
the  state,  230;  government  of, 
229-240. 

Citizens,  naturalized,  42. 

Citizenship,  9  ;  the  family  a  school  of, 
28;  of  women,  28;  qualities  of 
good,  28;  good,  9,  65,  74,  88,  92, 
94;    schools  train  for,  137-141. 

City,  gov-ernment  of  the,  229-241. 

City  council,  232,  233. 

City  manager  plan,  238,  239. 

Civic  center,  148. 

Civic  improvement  associations,  166. 

Civil  service,  210,  258;  commission, 
211 ;    reform  in  cities,  236. 

Cleanliness,  62,  63. 


Cleveland,  155,  157. 

Climate,  11. 

Coast  surve}',  112. 

Colleges,  147. 

Colonial  charters,   242. 

Colonies,  107,  136,  169,  170,  220,  221, 

270. 
Colonists,  3,  98,  135,  169,  182,  187, 

217,  218,  219,  252,  269. 
Colonize,  48. 
Colony,  in  the  West,  3  ;  Virginia,  12, 

135,  219;    Massachusetts  Bay,  36. 
Colorado,  80,  82,  250. 
Columbus,  18. 
Commerce,  101-103;   department  of, 

104,   261 ;    bureau  of  foreign  and 

domestic,  261. 
Commission    form    of    government, 

236-238. 
Committees,  party,  196;   legislative, 

244, 256. 
Communication,    3 ;     transportation 

and, 107-122. 
Communities,  kinds  of,  7  ;  growth  of, 

7  ;  permanence  of,  47  ;  dependence 

on  each  other,  65. 
Communit}^  the  beginning  of,  1-5 ; 

site  of ,  I,  2,  10-14;  nature  of,  7-9; 

definition    of,     7;     school-,     139; 

membership  in,  8,  9. 
Companionship,   17,   25. 
Comptroller,  state,  247. 
Confederation,       the,       100,       252; 

Articles  of  (see  Articles). 
Confidence,  95,  96. 
Congress,  organization  and   powers, 

254-256,  258. 
Congressional  districts,  254. 
Connecticut,  136. 
Conservation    of    natural    resources, 

127-131- 

Constables,  76,  218,  226. 

Constitution,  of  the  United  States, 
20,  42,  75,  76,  98,  99,  100,  no,  119, 
148,  171,  179,  180,  182,  183,  184, 
197,  243,  249,  252,  253,  254,  255, 


INIM-:X 


307 


256,  257,  258,  261,  262,  270,  280- 
2g7 ;  its  framinf;  and  ratification, 
182,  253;  amendment  of,  253; 
inter])retation  of,  184. 

Constitutions,  state,  99,  171,  189,  190, 
208,  242,  243,  244;  amendment  of, 
242. 

Consuls,  102. 

Conx'ention,  constitutional,  252,  253; 
nominating;,  192. 

Corporation  tax,  274. 

Cor|)orations,  growth  of,  103  ;  con- 
trol of,  102,  103 ;  domination  i)y, 
206;  bureau  of,  103,  261. 

Country,  advantages  of  life  in,  59. 

County,  in  the  West,  223,  224; 
government  of  the,  219-227;  as 
state  administrative  division,  246; 
courts,  249;    supervisors,  221. 

Courts,  city,  239,  240. 

Courts,  federal,  261-263 ;  supreme. 
261;  circuit,  262;  district,  262; 
of  claims,  262;  of  customs  appeals, 

262.  ■'■,l:\        I-)         ., 

Courts,  state,  77,  248-250;  Justices', 
248;  police,  77,  248;  district, 
248 ;  circuit,  248 ;  criminal,  249  ; 
county,  249;  probate,  249;  chan- 
cery; 249 ;    sujireme,  249. 

Credit,  95. 

Crime,  177,  180;  regulation  by  state, 
179;  by  federal  government,  179; 
prevention  of,  178. 

Criminal  courts,  249. 

Criminals.  31,  173,  177. 

Cuba,  67. 

Defectives,  173,  174. 

Defects  in  self-government,  214. 

Defense,  national,  81-83. 

Delinc|uents,  173. 

Democratic,    188. 

Dependence   of    the    citizen    on    the 

I'ommunity,  88-92. 
Dependents,  173,  174   176. 
Desires,  16-20;   combinations  of,  18; 


conflict  of,  19 ;  provided  for  by  the 
family,  25;  by  the  community, 
58. 

Disease,  protection  against,  24; 
occupational,  ^2. 

Distribution  of  powers,  253. 

District  courts,  248. 

District  of  Columbia,  266. 

Division  of  labor,  89,  90;  geographi- 
cal, 90,  91. 

Division  of  powers,  182^186. 

I  )omain,  eminent,  53  ;  national,  48. 

Domestic  science,  1 24. 

Education,  3,  135-148;  in  the 
pioneer  family,  24;  a  dut)',  141; 
department  of,  234 ;  United  States 
Bureau  of,  146;  commissioner  of, 
146. 

Efl'iciency  engineering,  125. 

Election,  195;  indirect.  197;  of 
the  President,  197. 

Elections,  195;  primary,  192;  fre- 
quency of,  196. 

Electors,"  presidential,  197. 

Electric  railways,   114. 

Eminent  domain,  53. 

Emploj'ee,  responsibility  of  the.  91- 
94;    and  employer,  91. 

Employer,  relation  to  employee,  91. 

Employer's  liability  laws,  80. 

Equalization,  boards  of,  273. 

Erie  canal,  112,1 13. 

Estimate,  boards  of,  233. 

Exchange  of  goods,  27,. 

Excise  taxes,  276. 

Executive  powers,  185  ;  in  cities,  233 ; 
of  the  state,  246-248;  of  the 
national  government.  256-258; 
departments,    259-261. 

Exemptions,  275. 

Families,  i,  2,  22. 

i'amilj-,  ,4,  22-26;  services  of,  22; 
responsibility  of,  26 ;  a  training 
school    for    citizens,     28;      unites 


3o8 


INDEX 


people    and    land,    48;     protects 

health,  58;   education  in,  136. 
Federal    government,    183;     nation, 

183. 
Fees,  275. 
Fire,     loss     from,     71 ;      protection 

against,  71-75;    danger  from,  31; 

department,  233  ;  waste  from,  131  ; 

insurance,  74. 
Fisheries,  bureau  of,  131,  261. 
Floods,  protection  against,  85  ;  waste 

from,  1 29  ;  prevention  of,  1 29. 
Food,  impure,  103;    and  drugs  act, 

103. 
Foreign     commerce,     regulation    of, 

loi,  102. 
F'oreigncrs,    36-45;      in    cities,    38; 

distribution      of,     37,      38       (see 

Immigrants,  Immigration). 
Forest  service,  129. 
F'orestry,  129;  bureau  of,  153. 
Forests,  national,  51. 
Franchises,  54,   116,  233. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  71,  76,  77. 
Freedom,  individual,  99;    of  speech, 

press,  and  assemblage,  147,  148. 
Free  trade,  loi. 

Gardens,  156,  157. 

Geographical  conditions,  i,  2,  10-14. 

Government,  5,  19,  25,  26,  31,  53,  54, 
68,  75,  93,  98,  104,  127,  131,  132, 
13s,  137,  140,  153,  154,  169,  170, 
171,  172,  174,  175,  181-199,  200- 
216,  268-279. 

Government,  local,  13,  32,  52,  54,55, 
59,  60,  63,  64,  72,  73,  74,  76-78,  80, 
85,  99,  108,  109,  no,  III,  115,  116, 
118,  130,  143,  144,  145,  158,  162, 
182,  184,  185,  186,  188,  196,  209, 
210,  217-228,  229-241,  246,  268, 
269,  271,  273,  274,  275. 

Government,  national,  13,  39,  4°,  4i, 
42,  45,  48,  49,  54,  55,  66,  67,  79, 
81-85,  95,  99,  100-104,  no,  112, 
113,  iiQ,   120,  126,  127-129,  131, 


137,  146,  153,  179,  182,  183,  184, 
186,  196,  223,  235,  252-267,  268, 
270,  275-278. 

Government,  purpose  of,  19,  20,  104, 
181;  cost  of,  268;  ownership  of 
railways,  118;  ownership  of  tele- 
graph, 119,  1 20;  waste  in,  131, 
132;    threefold  character  of,  182. 

Government,  state,  32,  42,  53,  55,  66, 
80,  81,  85,  99,  100,  104,  III,  112, 
113,  114,  141,  143,  145,  146,  153, 
171,  174,  178,  182,  183,  184,  186. 
188,  189,  196,  209,  210,  226,  230, 
242-251,  259,  263,  268,  271,  273, 
274,  275. 

Governor,  the,  246. 

(ireal  lakes,  112,  113. 

Guam,    266. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  loi. 

Harmony,  means  to  secure,  19. 

Hawaii,  263,  264. 

Health,  3,  11 ;  desire  for,  16,  58;  in 
the  pioneer  family,  25;  in  slums, 
30,  31;  protection  of,  58-70; 
dangers  to,  58,  59;  board  of,  60; 
commissioner  of,  60;  policeman, 
60 ;  state  control  of,  66 ;  state 
board  of,  66 ;  national  control  of, 
66  ;    department  of,  233. 

High  schools,  142. 

Highways,  state  control  of,  no,  in. 

Hoarding,  125. 

Home,  making  of  a,  23 ;  and  the 
community,  28-35;  owning  a,  29; 
ownership  (table),  298;  life, 
dangers  to,  30;  laws  protecting 
the,  32;    beauty  in  the,  154. 

Home    gardening    association,     156, 

157- 
Home  rule  in  cities,  231 ;  in  counties, 

226. 
Homes,  city  of,  2,  22,  30;    desire  to 

own,  48 ;   of  workingmen,  94. 
Homestead  act,  43,  48. 
Hospitals,  64. 


INDKX 


309 


Idaho,  189.  > 

Illinois,  5,37. 

!mmi^,'ranl,  contributiotk. of  the,  40. 

Immigrants,  reasons  for  coming,  36, 
3Q ;  number  of,  36,  299  (tables), 
distribution  of,  37,  38,  42 ;  ex- 
cluded, 40,  41;  in  cities,  42; 
assimilation  of,  42,  44;  medical 
inspection  of,  66. 

Immigration,  character  of,  39;  com- 
mission, 41  ;  restriction  of,  41,  42; 
bureau  of,  42,  261  ;  tables,  299- 
303    (see  Foreigners,  Immigrants). 

Impeachment,  256,  257. 

Import  duties,  loi,  276, 

Income  tax,  274,  276. 

Indiana,  38,  108. 

Indiana|)olis,  61,  62. 

Indians,  18,  24,  47;  schools  for. 
14O. 

Industrial  organization,  90. 

Inheritance  ta.x,  274. 

Initiative,  209,  245. 

Insular  affairs,  bureau  of,  259,  266. 

Insurance,  fire,  74;    life,  127. 

Interests,  2,  3,  7. 

Interior,  department  of,   260. 

Internal  revenue  districts,  277. 

Interstate  commerce,   regulation  of, 

102,  103;    act,   102;    commission. 

103,  114- 

Interurban  electric  rail\va\s,  114. 
Investment,  126. 
Irrigation,  51. 

Jackson,  .\ndre\v,  2io.v 

J  •    ^  >  y     - 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  loi.x .   ■. 

Judges,      appointment  \)f,' — state, 

249;    federal,  262.  -^  \ 

Judicial  branch  of  government,  1S5; 

of  cities,  239;    of  states,  248-250; 

of  the  nation,  260,  261 ;    districts. 

55.248. 
Judiciary,  261. 

Jury  service,  202;   trial  by,  75.  249. 
Justice,  department  of,  250.  260. 


Justices'  courts,  248;    of  the  peace, 

248. 
Juvenile  courts,  178. 

Kansas,  189. 

Knowledge,  desire  for,  17,  135-151. 

Labor,  department  of,  104,  261  ; 
unions,  92,  99. 

Land,  3,  47-57  ;  divisions  of,  47,  54 ; 
occupation  of,  48 ;  open  to  settle- 
ment, 49;  survey  of,  49-51; 
public,  51  ;  given  to  railroads,  48, 
114;   reclamation  of,  128. 

Law,  in  the  family,  25 ;  lax  enforce- 
ment  of,   63,    78,  79. 

Law  breakers,  75. 

Law-making  power,  244. 

Lawrenceburg,  82,  83,  84. 

Laws,  common,  7 ;  as  a  means  to 
secure  harmony,  19;  protecting 
the  home,  32. 

Legislation,  direct,  208-210;  gov- 
ernor's power  over,  247 ;  Presi- 
dent's power  over,  257. 

Legislative  branch  of  government, 
185;  in  cities,  232,  237,  238;  in 
states,  243-246;  in  the  national 
government,  254-256. 

Legislature,  243-246. 

Libraries,  147. 

Licenses,  275. 

Lieutenant  governor,  244. 

Life,  desire  for,  16 ;  well  rounded,  18 ; 
protection  of,  71-87;  insurance, 
127;   saving  service,  84. 

Lighthouses,  84;    bureau  of,  261. 

Liquor  traffic,  78. 

Livingstone,  17. 

Lobbying,  245. 

Local  government  (see  Government). 

Louisville,  11. 

Lynching,  75,  76. 

Machine,  party,  205  ;   voting,  206. 
Majority  rule,  207. 


3IO 


INDEX 


Marjland,  170. 

Massachusetts,  colony,  36;  educa- 
tion in,  135,  136. 

Mayor,  232,  233,  235. 

Membership  in  the  community,  8. 

Merit  system,  211;  in  cities,  236, 
258.   ' 

Messages,  President's,  258. 

Military  schools,  146. 

Militia,  80,  81. 

Milwaukee,  130. 

Mines,  bureau  of,  131. 

Minneapolis,  11. 

Minnesota,  37. 

Minority  rule,  207. 

Mints,  loi. 

Money,  4,  23,  100,  loi,  277. 

Nation,  government  of  the,  252-267 
(see  Govertiment) ;  builders  of  the, 

•     93- 

National  government  (see  Govern- 
ment) . 

National  guard,  80. 

Nationality,  bond  of,  4,  36. 

Natural  resources,  conservation  of, 
127. 

Naturalization,  42;    bureau,  261. 

Naval  schools,   146. 

Navigation,  bureau  of,  261. 

Navy,  81,  83,  84 ;  department  of,  260. 

New  England,  13;   schools  in,  136. 

New  Jersey,  in,  189. 

New  Mexico,  264. 

New  Orleans,  66. 

Newspaper,  119. 

New  York  City,  38,  72,  74,  76,  79, 
117,  118,  130,  203,  212,  233. 

Niagara  Falls,  1 29. 

Noise,  158. 

Nominations,  190-194. 

Northwest  Territory,  171. 

Obedience,  28,  198. 
Occupations,  3,  23,  24,  25,  90. 
Office,  duty  of  taking,  201. 


Ohio,  So,  239. 
Oklahoma,  137. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  137,  171. 
Ordinances,  building,  74. 
Oregon,  189. 

Panama,  67. 

Panama  canal,  113. 

Parcel  post,  119. 

Pardons,  board  of,  247. 

Parish,  217. 

Parks,  32,  64,  153,  163,  166. 

Participation  by  children  in  school 

government,  140 
Parties,  political,  190;    organization 

of,  19s,  196  ;  and  city  government, 

235- 

Party  spirit,  204,  205. 

Patriotism,  93,  96,  202. 

Pavements,  158. 

Pawn  shops,  78. 

Peace  movement,  83,  84. 

Peary,  17. 

Penn,  William,  198. 

Pennsylvania,  37. 

Permanence,    a    necessity    in    com- 
munity life,  47. 

Philadelphia,  11,  71,  72,  77,  130,  132, 
229. 

Philippines,  67,   259,  263,  264,   2(15, 
I      266. 

j  Pioneer  life,  4;  family,  22-26,  89. 
i  Piracy,  179. 

Pittsburg,  10. 

Playgrounds,  31,  32,  64. 

Plymouth,  36. 

Poles,  telegraph  and  telephone,  162. 

PoHce,    76,    77;     courts,    248;     de- 
partment, 234. 

Polls,  194,  195,  206. 

PoU  tax,  274. 

Poor  relief,  175. 

Porto  Rico,  259,  263,  264,  266. 

Postal  savings  system,  126. 

Postal  service,  119. 

Postmaster  General,  120. 


INDEX 


3'i 


I'usl  Otlkc  Department,  120,  -'60. 
roverly,  175. 

Preamble  to  the  Constitution,  jo,  iSj. 
I'refcrential  primaries,   IQ4;    xotin^, 

208. 
I'resident,    naturalized   citizens   may 

not  become,  43 ;    and  the  militia, 

81;      nomination    of,     191,     ig^; 

election  of,  197;   powers  of,  257. 
Press,  freedom  of,  147. 
Primaries,    203,    204;     direct,    193. 

194;   preferential,  194. 
Primary  elections,  191,  192;  districts, 

192. 
Probation  officers,  1 78. 
Property,     i)ri)tection     of,      71-87; 

rights,  52,  98. 
ProiK)rlional  rei)resentation,  207. 
Protection,  in  the  pioneer  family,  24  ; 

of   life   and   property,    71-87;    of 

health,  sS-fjg. 
Public  opinion,  246. 
Public  schools,  137-145;  cost  of,  137; 

train  for  citizenship,  137-141. 
Public  service,  as  a  career,  21 1-2 13. 
Public  works,  board  of,  234. 
Punishment,  177. 
Pure  food  laws,  67,  103. 
Puritans,  170,  218. 

Quarantine,  64,  66. 
()uebcc,  II. 

Radio-communication,  1 20. 

Railroads,  lands  ^iven  to,  48. 

Railway  commissions,  114. 

Railways,  112,  113,  114;  govern- 
ment ownership  of,  118. 

Recall,  the,  208  ;  of  judicial  decisions, 
-'50. 

Reclamation,  of  land,  128;  ser\ice, 
51- 

Referendum,  209,  245. 

Registration,  195. 

Religion,  3,  17,  25,  169,  170;  attitude 
of  government  toward,  172. 


RcliKious  desire,  169. 

Representation,  basis  of,  254. 

Representative  government,   182. 

Rejjresentalives,  chosen  from  local 
districts,  187,  188;  House  of  — 
state,  243,  national,  254-256. 

Republican  form  of  government,  243. 

Resources,  natural,  i,  2,  11;  conser- 
vation of,  1 27-131. 

Responsibility,  sense  of  personal,  198 ; 
of  the  citizen,  88,  94,  95,  124,  132, 
158,  201,  213,  274;  of  the  state 
executive,  247 ;    of  the  President, 

257- 
Revenue,     bills     for     raising,     255; 

districts,  277. 
Revision  of  Constitutions,  242. 
Revolutionar>'  War,  48,  49,  98,  100, 

137- 

Righteousness,  desire  for,  17. 

Rings,  political,  205. 

River  and  harbor  bill,  1 12. 

Rivers  as  highways,  11 1 ,  112. 

Road,  the  national,  no. 

Roads,  lack  of,  23 ;  state  control  of, 
99;  importance  of,  108;  methods 
of  building,  108,  109  (see  High- 
ways) . 

Rural  communities,  114;  govern- 
ment of,  217-227;  schools,  143, 
144;   free  mail  deliver}',  119. 

Safety,  board  of,  234. 

Saint  Louis,  65,  73. 

Samoan  Islands,  266. 

San  Francisco,  10,  75,  82. 

Saving,  waste  and,  123-134;  by  in- 
vestment, 125;  by  children,  i2(); 
by  life  insurance,  127. 

Savings,  pt)stal,  1 26. 

School,  the  public,  its  purjwse,  19; 
influence  on  immigrants,  44 ; 
school  city,  140;  attendance,  141; 
as  a  civic  center,  148. 

Schools,  organization  of,  143-145; 
private  and  uarochial,  146;   medi- 


312 


INDEX 


cal     inspection     in,    65 ;     adjust- 

ting  to  pupils'  needs,  142. 
Scientific  management,  125. 
Selectmen,  218. 
Self-go\ernment,  -98,    99,    181-214; 

direct    and     representative,     182 ; 

changing    methods    of,     200-214; 

restricted,    200,    201 ;     in    insular 

possessions,  265  ;  in  schools,  140. 
Senate,    state,    243;    national,    254- 

256. 
Senators,  election  of,  197,  255. 
Separation    of     powers,     185,     187, 

243.  -'54- 
Settlement  in  the  West,  1-5,  7,   10, 

16,  17,  22,  30,  47,  59,  60,  107,  169. 
Sewers,  60-62. 
Sheriff,  76,  220,  224,  225. 
Short  ballot,  203,  225,  226. 
Site  of   a   community,    i,    2,    10-14, 

107. 
Slums,   30. 
Smoke,  63,  164. 
Social  life,  3,  25. 
Soil,  conservation  of,  128. 
Soils,  bureau  of,  128. 
South  Carolina,  239. 
Spain,  war  with,  263. 
Speaker,  244,  256. 
Speech,  free,  147. 
Spoils  system,  210,  211,  258. 
State  (see  Governmenl) ;    department 

of,  259;   government  of  the,  242- 

251. 
State  universities,   146. 
Steamboat,    112. 
Street,    cleaning,    63;     lighting,    77; 

blocking  of,   116;    its  importance, 

115-117;  appearance  of,  157-163; 

department,    234. 
Suffrage,  188-190;   woman,  189,  190. 
Superintendent,  of  schools  —  county, 

143,  city,  144,  state,  145. 
Supreme     court  —  state,     249,    fed- 
eral, 261. 
Survey  of  public  lands,  49. 


Tariff,  loi,  102. 

Taxation,  268-279. 

Taxes,  100,  202. 

Telegraph,    119. 

Telephone,  114, 119, 

Tenements,  30-32. 

Terms  of  office,  196. 

Territories,  263-266. 

Texas,  237. 

Town  meeting,  147,  148,  182,  217, 
218,  221,  222. 

Township,  50,  223;  government  of, 
217,  218;  as  state  administrative 
division,  246. 

Transportation,  32;  and  communi- 
cation, 107-120. 

Treason,  179. 

Treasurer,  state,  246. 

Treasury,  department  of  the,  259. 

Treaties,  257. 

Trees,  protection  of,  160-162. 

Trial  by  jury,  75,  180. 

Trusts,  1 03. 

Turnpikes,  no. 

Utah,  189. 

Vestry,  217. 

Veto,  187,  232,  244,  257,  258. 
Vice-President,  43,  197,  257. 
Vigilance  committees,  75,  76. 
Virginia,  12,  13,  135,  219. 
Voting,  independent,   193 ;    dut)-  of, 
202  ;    j)referential,   208 ;    machine, 

20(). 

War,  Department  of,  259. 

Washington,  George,  190;  farewell 
address  of,  204. 

Washington,  D.C.,  146,  147. 

Waste,  and  saving,  123-134;  in  the 
hou.sehold,  123,  125;  in  business, 
124;  of  natural  resources,  127- 
131  ;  of  water,  130;  by  fire,  131  ; 
in  government,  131,  132. 

Water,     supply,     60-62,     73,     130; 


INDEX 


313 


|)owcr,  i2q;    conscrwilioii  ol,  i^q, 

'30. 
Wealth,  3,  23;  desire  for,  15,  88. 
Weather  bureau,  260. 
Weights  and  measures,  loi. 
West,  settlement  of  the,  no. 
West  Virginia,  37. 
Wireless  telegraphy,  1 20. 


Woman  sutlrage,  i8y,  190. 

Women,  citizenship  of,  28;  naturali- 
zation of,  43 ;  managers  of  the 
household,  124. 

Wyoming,  189. 

Yellowstone  Park,  153. 
Yosemite,  the,  153. 


G()VI:R.\.\lli\T  OF  WHST  VIKCIXIA 

CHAPTER   I 
POWERS    OF    STATE    GOVERNMENT 

It  has  been  learned  in  the  earHcr  i)art  of  this  book  that  the 
United  States  Government  has  a  law  making  department, 
a  law  interpreting  department,  and  a  law  enforcing  depart- 
ment. The  State  of  West  Virginia  likewise  has  these  three 
branches  of  government,  and  they  arc  defined  in  its  funda- 
mental law.  The  State  Constitution,  however,  is  not  so 
simple  a  document  as  the  United  States  Constitution.  In 
the  following  chapters  the  powers  of  the  three  departments  of 
government  arc  stated  as  ]jrovided  for  in  the  Constitution 
itself.  This  will  make  clear  the  real  workings  of  the  State 
Government. 

The  powers  of  the  State  Government  are  divided  into 
Legislative,  Judicial,  and  Executive  Departments,  which 
shall  be  separate  and  distinct,  so  that  none  shall  execute  the 
powers  properly  belonging  to  either  of  the  others ;  nor  shall 
any  person  exercise  the  powers  of  more  than  one  of  them  at 
the  same  time,  except  that  justices  of  the  peace  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  Legislature.^ 

These  powers  of  government  are  provided  for  in  our  State 
Constitution  in  the  following  paragraphs  : 

Legislative.  —  "  The  legislative  power  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Delegates."  "  The  Senate  shall  be 
composed  of  twenty-four,  and  the   House   of  Delegates  of 

1  Const.  Art.  V. 
I 


2  G0VERNMP:NT   of   west   VIRGINIA 

sLxty-five  members/  subject  to  be  increased  according  to  the 
provisions  hereinafter  contained."^ 

Senators  and  Delegates  are  elected  by  popular  vote,  Sena- 
tors for  four  years  and  Delegates  for  two  years.  They  enter 
upon  their  terms  of  office  on  the  first  day  of  December  next 
after  their  election.  Both  Senators  and  Delegates  must  be 
citizens  entitled  to  vote  and  must  have  been  residents  of  their 
respective  districts  or  counties  for  one  year  next  preceding 
their  election,  and  besides  this  senators  must  be  at  least 
25  years  of  age  and  must  have  been  citizens  of  the  State  for 
five  years  next  preceding  their  election.  The  removal  of  a 
Senator  from  his  district  or  the  removal  of  a  Delegate  from 
his  county  or  delegate  district  thereby  vacates  his  office. 

Each  legislator  receives  four  dollars  per  day  during  the 
time  the  Legislature  is  in  session,  except  that  the  President 
of  the  Senate  and  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Delegates  re- 
ceive each  two  dollars  per  day  additional  for  each  day  they 
serve  as  such  officers.  Mileage  of  ten  cents  for  each  mile 
traveled  in  going  and  returning  from  sessions  of  the  Legisla- 
ture by  the  nearest  traveled  route  is  also  allowed  to  members 
of  both  Houses. 

Vacancy  in  the  office  of  legislator  is  filled  by  special  election. 
The  Legislature  assembles  at  the  seat  of  government  bien- 
nially on  the  second  Wednesday  of  January,  and  not  oftener 
unless  convened  by  the  Governor. 

Judicial.  —  "  The  judicial  power  of  the  State  shall  be  in- 
vested in  a  supreme  court  of  appeals,  in  circuit  courts  and  the 
judges  thereof,  in  such  inferior  tribunals  as  are  herein  author- 
ized and  in  justices  of  the  peace."  ^ 

''  The  supreme  court  of  appeals  shall  consist  of  five 
judges,"  *  "  three  of  whom  shall  be  a  quorum  for  the  transac- 
tion of  business."  ^ 

'  The  Senate  now  consists  of  30  and  the  House  of  Delegates  of  04  members. 

«  Const.  Art.  VI,  Sees,  i  and  2.  '  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  i. 

■•  Judicial  Amendment,  1902.  '  Const.  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  2. 


POWERS    OF    STATE    GOVERNMENT  3 

Judges  are  elected  by  vote  of  the  people.  They  must 
be  at  least  30  years  of  age  and  must  have  been  citizens  of 
the  State  for  five  years  next  preceding  their  election.  They 
enter  upon  their  terms  of  office  on  the  first  day  of  Janu- 
ary next  after  election.  Judges  of  the  supreme  court  of 
appeals  serve  twelve  years,  judges  of  the  circuit  court  eight 
years,  and  judges  of  inferior  tribunals  such  time  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  law  for  each  particular  court.  Circuit  judges 
must  reside  within  their  respective  circuits  or  districts. 
Judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  appeals  receive  $5500  per 
year,  judges  of  the  circuit  courts  $3300  per  year,  and  judges  of 
inferior  tribunals  such  salary  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law. 
Besides  their  salaries  judges  receive  10  cents  mileage  for 
necessary  distance  traveled  in  holding  court. 

Justices  of  the  peace  must  be  qualified  voters  of  their  respec- 
tive districts.  Their  terms  of  office  begin  on  the  first  day  of 
January  next  after  election  and  continue  four  years.  Their 
compensation  consists  entirely  of  fees. 

Executive.  —  "  The  Executive  Department  shall  consist 
of  a  Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  State  Superintendent  of 
Free  Schools,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  and  Attorney-General, 
who  shall  be  ex-officio  Reporter  of  the  Court  of  Appeals."  ^ 
Also  a  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  (Acts,  191 1). 

All  executive  officers  must  be  citizens  entitled  to  vote,  and 
the  Governor  must  have  attained  the  age  of  30  and  the 
Attorney-General  of  2  5  years  at  the  beginning  of  their  respec- 
tive terms  of  service,  and  must  have  been  citizens  of  the  State 
for  five  years  next  preceding  their  election  or  appointment. 
Their  terms  of  office  begin  on  the  4th  day  of  March  next 
after  election  and  continue  four  years. 

The  Governor  is  not  eligible  to  the  office  of  governor  for 
the  four  years  next  succeeding  the  temi  for  which  he  was 
elected.- 

1  Const.  Art.  VII,  Sec.  i.  ■  -Vrt.  VII,  Sec.  4. 


4  GOVERNMENT    OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

The  salaries  of  the  executive  officers  are  as  follows : 

Governor       $5,ooo 

Secretary  of  State 4,000 

State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools      ....  4,000 

Treasurer       3)500 

Auditor 4,500 

Attorney-General          4,000 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture 4,000 

In,  addition  to  the  above  salaries  these  officers  are  allowed  contin- 
gent expenses,  consisting  of  stationery,  postage,  etc. 

Suggestive  Questions 

Who  is  the  Governor  of  the  State?  When  will  his  term  of  office 
expire  ?  Who  are  the  State  Senators  from  your  district  ?  To  which 
part  of  government  do  they  belong  ?  What  public  officials  hold  office 
for  the  longest  term  ?  Give  a  reason  for  this  longer  term.  Should  the 
Governor  be  immediately  reelected  if  he  is  an  excellent  governor? 
Give  a  reason  for  your  answer.  Which  public  office  do  you  regard  as 
most  desira'ble?  What  are  some  of  the  qualifrcations  for  this  office? 
Which  boy  has  the  better  chance  for  public  life,  the  one  who  leaves 
school  early,  or  the  one  v^ho  continues  in  school  through  the  University  ? 
Name  other  public  officials  in  your  community.  Tell  to  what  depart- 
ment of  government  each  belongs. 


CHAPTER   II 
LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT 

Since  the  happiness  of  a  people  depends  so  largely  on  the 
kind  of  laws  under  which  they  live,  it  is  of  great  importance 
that  every  citizen,  young  and  old,  should  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  legislative  power  of  his  own  government.  These 
powers  are  here  presented  under  three  heads,  viz, :  (i)  what 
the  Legislature  shall  do,  (2)  what  the  Legislature  may  do,  and 
(3)  what  the  Legislature  cannot  do. 

If  not  denied  to  the  State  by  the  United  States  Constitu- 
tion nor  prohibited  by  the  State  Constitution,  the  Legisla- 
ture may  pass  any -kind  of  law  whatever,  so  that- under  the 
head,  "  What  the  Legislature  may  do,"  only  the  more 
important  of  the  powers  specially  designated  by  the  State 
Constitution  are  here  given. 

What  the  Legislature  Shall  Do.  —  (i)  Shall,  in  cases  not 
provided  for  in  the  Constitution,  jjrescribe  by  general  laws 
the  terms  of  office,  powers,  and  duties,  and  compensation  of 
all  public  officers  and  agents,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
shall  be  elected,  appointed,  or  removed.^ 

(2)  Shall  prescribe  the  manner  of  conducting  and  making 
returns  of  elections,  and  of  determining  contested  elections ; 
and  pass  such  laws  as  may  be  necessary  and  proper  to  pre- 
vent intimidation,  disorder,  or  violence  at  the  polls,  and  cor- 
ruption and  fraud  in  voting,  counting  the  vote,  ascertaining 
the  result,  or  fraud  in  any  manner,  upon  the  ballot. - 

(3)  Shall  enact  laws  for  the  registration  of  qualified  voters 
in  this  State. ^ 

»  Const.  Art.  IV,  Sec.  8.  '  Art.  IV,  Sec.  ii.  3  Art.  IV,  Sec.  12. 

5 


6  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST    VIRGINIA 

(4)  Shall  declare  by  law,  as  soon  as  possible  after  each  suc- 
ceeding census,  taken  by  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
the  arrangements  of  the  senatorial  and  delegate  districts, 
and  a]3portion  the  delegates,  taking  care  to  make  the  sena- 
torial districts  equal  in  population  as  near  as  may  be.^ 

(5)  Shall  provide  by  law  that  the  fuel,  stationery,  and  print- 
ing pa])er,  furnished  for  the  use  of  the  State ;  the  copying, 
])rinting,  binding,  and  distributing  the  laws  and  journals  ;  and 
all  other  printing  ordered  by  the  Legislature,  be  let  by  con- 
tract to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder,  bidding  under  a  maxi- 
mum ]3rice  to  be  fixed  by  the  Legislature. ^ 

(6)  Shall  provide  for  the  punishment  by  imprisonment  in 
the  penitentiary,  of  any  person  who  shall  bribe,  or  attempt  to 
bribe,  any  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  this  State,  or  any 
member  of  the  Legislature,  or  any  such  officer  for  soliciting 
or  receiving  bribes.^ 

(7)  Shall  levy  an  annual  capitation  tax  of  one  dollar  upQn 
each  male  inhabitant  of  the  State  who  has  attained  the  age 
of  20  years,  which  shall  be  annually  appropriated  to  the  sup- 
port of  free  schools.  Persons  afflicted  with  bodily  infirmity 
may  be  exempted  from  this  tax.'* 

(8)  Shall  provide  for  the  organization  of  all  corporations 
by  general  laws,  uniform  as  to  the  class  to  which  they  relate  ; 
but  no  corporation  shall  be  created  by  special  law.^ 

(9)  Shall  provide  by  law  that  in  all  elections  for  directors 
or  managers  of  incorporated  companies,  every  stockholder 
shall  have  a  right  to  vote,  "in  person  or  by  proxy,  for  the  num- 
ber of  shares  of  stock  owned  by  him,  for  as  many  persons  as 
there  are  directors  or  managers  to  be  elected,  etc.^ 

(10)  Shall  from  time  to  time  pass  laws,  applicable  to  all 
railroad  corporations  in  the  State,  establishing  reasonable 
maximum  rates  of  charges  for  the  transportation  of  passen- 

1  Const.  Art.  VI,  Sees.  4  and  10.  =  -Vrt.  VI,  Sec.  34.        s  Art.  VI,  Sec.  45. 

*  Art.  X,  Sec.  2.  ^  Art.  XI,  Sec.  i.         « Art.  XI,  Sec.  4. 


LECilSLATlVr:    DKl'AKTMENT  7 

gers  and  freight,  and  providing  for  the  correcting  of  abuses, 
the  prevention  of  unjvist  discrimination  between  through  and 
local  or  way  freight  and  passenger  tariffs,  and  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  just  rights  of  the  jjuIdHc,  and  shall  enforce  such 
laws  by  adequate  penalties.^ 

( 1 1 )  Shall  provide  by  general  law  for  a  thoroughly  efficient 
system  of  free  schools.^ 

(12)  Shall  provide  for  the  support  of  free  schools  by  appro- 
priating hereto  the  interest  of  the  invested  School  Fund, 
the  net  proceeds  of  all  forfeitures  and  fines  accruing  to  this 
State  under  the  laws  thereof,  the  State  capitation  tax,  and  by 
general  taxation  of  persons  and  property  or  otherwise.  Also 
provide  for  raising  in  each  county  or  district,  by  the  authority 
of  the  people  thereof,  such  a  proportion  of  the  amount  re- 
quired for  the  sui)port  of  free  schools  therein  as  shall  be  pre- 
scribed by  general  laws.^ 

(13)  Shall  prescribe,  by  general  laws,  the  terms  of  ofifice, 
powers  and  duties  and  compensation  of  all  public  officers 
and  agents,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  be  elected, 
appointed  or  removed,  in  cases  not  provided  for  in  the  Con- 
stitution.■* 

( 1 4)  Shall  pass  laws  requiring  sherifTs,  and  all  other  officers, 
whether  state,  county,  district  or  municipal,  who  shall  col- 
lect, or  receive,  or  whose  official  duty  it  is,  or  shall  be,  to  col- 
lect, receive,  hold  or  pay  out  any  money  belonging  to,  or 
which  is  or  shall  loc,  for  the  use  of  the  State  or  of  any  county, 
district  or  municipal  corporation,  to  make  annual  account 
and  settlement  therefor.^ 

(15)  Shall  pass  laws  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  lottery  or  gift 
enterprise  tickets  in  this  State.® 

What  the  Legislature  May  Do.  —  (i)  May  by  suitable 
penalties  restrain  the  i)ul)lication  or  sale  of  obscene  books, 

'  Const.  Art.  XI,  Sec.  9.  « .Vrt.  XII,  Sec.  i.  3  Xrt.  XII,  Sec.  S- 

••  Art.  IV,  Sec.  8.  '  Art.  VI,  Sec.  27.  «  Art.  VI,  Sec.  36. 


8  GOVERNMENT    OF    WEST    VIRGINIA 

papers,  or  pictures,  and  provide  for  the  punishment  of  libel, 
and  defamation  of  character,  and  for  the  recovery,  in  civil 
actions,  by  the  aggrieved  party,  of  suitable  damages  for  such 
libel,  or  defamation.^ 

(2)  May  (Each  House)  punish  its  own  members  for  dis- 
orderly behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds 
of  the  members  elected  thereto,  expel  a  member,  but  not 
twdce  for  the  same  offense.^ 

(3)  May  pass  laws  regulating  or  prohibiting  the  sale  of  in- 
toxicating liquors  within  the  limits  of  the  State. ^ 

(4)  May  rearrange  the  circuits  provided  for  in  Article  VIII 
of  the  State  Constitution  at  any  session  thereof,  next  pre- 
ceding any  general  election  of  the  judges  of  said  circuits,  and 
may  increase  or  diminish  the  number  thereof.'* 

(5)  May  by  concurrent  vote  of  both  houses  of  the  Legis- 
lature remove  judges  from  office,  when  from  age,  disease, 
mental  or  bodily  infirmity  or  incompetence,  they  are  inca- 
pable of  discharging  the  duties  of  their  office.^ 

(6)  May  establish  courts  of  limited  jurisdiction  within  any 
incorporated  city,  town  or  village,  with  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  circuit  court,  subject  to  such  limitations  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  law ;  and  all  courts  of  limited  jurisdiction 
heretofore  established  in  any  county,  incorporated  city,  town, 
or  village,  shall  remain  as  at  present  constituted  until  other- 
wise provided  by  law.^ 

(7)  May  exempt  from  .taxation  all  cemeteries  and  public 
property  and  all  property  used  for  educational,  literary, 
scientific,  religious  or  charitable  purposes.'^ 

(8)  May  tax  by  uniform  and  equal  laws,  all  privileges  and 
franchises  of  persons  and  corporations.^ 

(9)  May,  by  law,  authorize  the  corporate  authorities  of 

'  Const.  Art.  Ill,  Sec.  7.  « .'\rt.  VI,  Sec.  25.  3  Art.  VI,  Sec.  48. 

*  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  14.  »  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  17.  «  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  ig. 

'  ;\rt.  X,  Sec.  I.  8  Art.  X,  Sec.  i. 


LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT  9 

cities,  towTis  and  villages,  for  corporate  purposes,  to  assess 
and  collect  taxes ;  but  such  taxes  shall  be  uniform,  with 
respect  to  persons  and  property  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
authority  imposing  the  same.' 

(10)  May  take  the  property  and  franchises  of  incorporated 
companies  and  subject  them  to  public  use,  under  right  of 
eminent  domain,  the  same  as  the  property  of  individuals.^ 

(11)  May  by  a  two-thirds  vote  propose  amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  or  i)ass  a  law  providing  for  submitting  to  a 
vote  of  the  jjcoplc  the  question  of  calling  a  convention  to  pro- 
pose amendments  to  the  Constitution.-'' 

What  the  Legislature  Cannot  Do.  —  (i)  Cannot  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  a  contract. ■* 

(2)  Cannot  pass  a  law  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press. ^ 

(3)  Cannot  prescribe  any  religious  test  whatever,  or  confer 
any  peculiar  privileges  or  advantages  on  any  sect  or  denomi- 
nation or  pass  any  law  requiring  or  authorizing  any  religious 
society,  or  the  people  of  any  district  within  the  State,  to  levy 
on  themselves,  or  others,  any  tax  for  the  erection  or  re- 
pair of  any  house  of  public  worship,  or  for  the  support  of 
any  church  or  ministry.^ 

(4)  Cannot  continue  a  session  of  the  Legislature  longer 
than  45  days  ^^^thout  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the 
members  elected  to  each  house.^ 

(5)  Cannot  authorize  lotteries  or  gift  enterprises  for  any 
purpose.^ 

(6)  Cannot  pass  a  law  after  the  election  of  any  public 
officer,  which  shall  operate  to  extend  the  term  of  his  office.' 

(7)  Cannot  grant  or  allow  extra  compensation  to  any  pub- 

•  Const.  Art.  X,  Sec.  9.  =  An.  XI,  Sec.  12.  «  Art.  XIV. 

•  .\rt.  III.  Sec.  4.  '-  .^rt.  Ill,  Sec.  7.  'Art.  Ill,  Sec.  55. 

•  Art.  \"I,  Sec.  22.  8  .\rt.  \I,  Sec.  36.  'Art.  VI,  Sec.  37. 


10  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

lie  officer,  agent,  servant  or  contractor,  after  the  service 
shall  have  been  rendered  or  the  contract  made.^ 

(8)  Cannot  authorize  the  payment  of  any  claim  or  part 
thereof,  hereafter  created  against  the  State,  under  any 
agreement  or  contract  made,  without  express  authority  of 
law.- 

(9)  Cannot  increase  or  diminish  the  salary  of  any  public 
officer  during  his  term  of  office.^ 

(10)  Cannot  release  any  public  officer  or  his  sureties  from 
any  debt  or  liability  due  to  the  State.* 

(11)  Cannot  pass  any  local  or  special  laws  in  any  of  the 
following  enumerated  cases  ;  that  is  to  say,  for 

(a)    Granting  divorces. 

(b).  Laying  out,  opening,  altering  and  working  roads  and 
highways. 

(c)  Vacating  roads,  town  plots,  streets,  alleys  and  public 
grounds. 

(d)  Regulating  or  changing  county  or  district  affairs. 

(e)  Locating  or  changing  county  seats. 

(/)  Providing  for  the  sale  of  public  property,  or  property 
held  for  charitable  purposes. 

(g)     Regulating  the  practice  in  courts  of  justice. 

(h)  Incorporating  cities,  towns  or  villages,  or  amending 
the  charter  of  any  city,  town,  or  village,  containing  a  popula- 
tion of  less  than  two  thousand. 

(i)     Summoning  or  impaneling  grand  or  petit  juries. 

(/■)  The  opening  or  conducting  of  any  election,  or  designat- 
ing the  place  of  voting. 

(k)  The  sale  and  mortgage  of  real  estate  belonging  to 
minors,  or  others  under  disabihty. 

(/)  Chartering,  licensing,  or  establishing  ferries  or  toll 
bridges. 

1  Const.  Art.  VI,  Sec.  38.  '  Art.  VI.  Sec.  38. 

'   » Art.  VI,  Sec.  38.  ■•  Art.  VI,  Sec.  38. 


LEGISLATIVE    DEPARTMENT  n 

(m)  Remitting  fines,  penalties  or  forfeitures. 

(m)    Changing  the  law  of  descent. 

(o)    Regulating  the  law  of  interest. 

(p)    Authorizing  deeds  to  be  made  for  land  sold  for  taxes. 

(q)    Releasing  taxes. 

(r)     Releasing  title  to  forfeited  lands. ^ 

(12)  Cannot  authorize  or  establish  any  board  or  court  of 
registration  of  voters. - 

(13)  Cannot  charter  any  church  or  religious  denomination.' 

(14)  Cannot  pass  a  law  granting  the  right  to  construct  and 
operate  a  street  railroad  \\athin  any  city,  town  or  incorpo- 
rated village  without  requiring  the  consent  of  the  local  au- 
thorities having  the  control  of  the  street  or  highway,  proposed 
to  be  occupied  by  such  street  or  railroad.* 

(15)  Cannot  make  any  appropriation  to  any  State  Normal 
School,  or  branch  thereof,  except  those  already  established 
and  in  operation,  or  chartered  when  the  Constitution  went 
into  eflfect.^ 

Suggestive  Questions 

How  often  are  the  senatorial  and  delegate  districts  adjusted  ?  What 
is  meant  by  the  term  responsible  bidder?  Is  it  well  to  accept  always 
the  lowest  bidder  in  private  or  in  public  business?  Why?  What  is 
bribery?  Could  there  be  any  other  bribery  than  by  offering  money 
for  votes?  Which  is  the  more  guilty,  the  person  who  buys  a  vote  or 
the  person  who  sells  it?  Give  a  reason  fox  assessing  each  male  in- 
habitant $1.00  tax  each  year.  What  is  a  corporation?  Explain  in 
your  own  words  the  wisdom  of  having  laws  pertaining  to  corporations 
uniform.  Which  part  of  Chapter  One  would  answer  this  question? 
What  is  meant  by  special  law?  Should  there  be  many  special  laws? 
Explain  the  terms  stockholder,  slock,  proxy.  How  many  votes  does 
a  stockholder  have?  Can  railroad  companies  charge  whatever  they 
please  for  freight  or  passenger  service  ?  Do  you  think  they  should  be 
permitted  to  do  so  ?     Give  a  reason  for  your  answer.     Are  railroads 

'  Const.  .'\rt.  VI,  Sec.  g.  2  .\rt.  VI,  Sec.  43.  '  Art.  VI,  Sec.  47. 

*  Art.  XI,  Sec.  5.  '  .\rt.  XII,  Sec.  11. 


12  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

taxed. in  West  Virginia?  If  so,  to  whom  is  payment  made?  Is  the 
money  thus  collected  used  by  the  State,  or  is  it  distributed  for  special 
purposes  ?  How  is  money  raised  for  school  purposes  in  West  Virginia  ? 
Where  does  the  money  which  your  teachers  receive  come  from  ?  Who 
collects  taxes  in  West  Virginia?  If  possible,  find  out  who  collects 
taxes  in  other  states.  Find  out  as  near  as  you  can  the  annual  income 
of  the  sheriff  of  your  county.  Would  you  regard  it  as  a  good  income  ? 
Look  up  the  meaning  of  the  words  slander,  libel.  How  can  the  Senate 
or  House  of  Delegates  punish  a  member  ?  Can  it  arrest  him  ?  Name 
some  property  upon  which  tax  is  not  paid.  Should  the  church  building 
be  exempt  from  taxation?  Should  all  church  property  be  exempt 
from  taxation  ?  If  a  church  owns  a  business  block,  should  it  be  exempt 
from  taxation  ?  What  is  meant  by  eminent  domain  ?  If  the  govern- 
ment wishes  to  purchase  property  for  a  public  building,  has  it  the  right 
to  take  possession  of  it  ?  If  a  railroad  company  desires  to  build  a  rail- 
road through  a  man's  farm,  can  the  owner  be  compelled  to  permit  it 
to  do  so  ?  If  he  can,  do  you  think  it  just  ?  How  may  the  State  Con- 
stitution be  amended  ?  May  a  man  who  is  not  a  member  of  any  church 
be  elected  to  a  public  office  ?  Give  a  good  reason  why  the  Legislature 
should  have  a  short  session.  How  may  an  extra  session  be  held? 
What  is  a  lottery?  What  is  a  church  lottery?  Is  there  a  lottery 
company  in  the  State?  Is  it  desirable  to  have  a  lottery  company? 
Why?  Are  church  lotteries  desirable?  Why?  Can  the  Governor's 
salary  be  increased?  Read  carefully  the  list  of  local  or  special  laws 
that  cannot  be  passed.  Write  a  good  question  under  each  item.  Can 
the  number  of  normal  schools  be  increased?  Give  reason  for  your 
answer. 


CHAPTER   III 

JUDICIAL   DEPARTMENT 

The  judicial  department  of  the  State  government  is  vested 
by  the  Constitution  in  a  supreme  court  of  appeals,  consisting 
of  five  judges,  in  circuit  courts  and  the  judges  thereof,  in  in- 
ferior courts  created  from  time  to  time  by  the  Legislature,  and 
in  justices  of  the  peace. ^ 

Supreme  Court  of  Appeals.  —  The  supreme  court  of  ap- 
peals is  the  highest  of  the  Slate  courts.  Three  of  its  judges 
must  agree  upon  a  decision  before  it  becomes  the  decision  of 
the  court.  The  court  sits  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  at  the  State  Capitol. 

Certain  classes  of  cases  may  be  first  brought  and  tried  in 
this  court,  but  the  greater  part  of  its  work  consists  of  cases 
that  have  been  tried  in  the  circuit  courts  and  appealed  to 
this  court.  In  most  ci\dl  cases  $ioo,  exclusive  of  interest 
and  costs,  must  be  in\'olved  before  the  case  can  be  appealed  ; 
however,  the  Constitution  provides  that  in  a  number  of 
instances  ci\dl  cases  may  be  appealed  irrespective  of  the 
amount  involved. 

This  court  also  has  appellate  jurisdiction  in  all  criminal 
cases  in  which  a  conviction  has  been  had  in  a  circuit  court  or 
a  conviction  by  an  inferior  court  has  been  afitirmcd  by  that 
court. ^ 

Circuit  Courts.  —  The  State  is  now  divided  into  twenty- 
three  circuits  or  districts,  each  of  which  is  presided  over  by 
a  judge,  except  the  first  circuit,  which  has  two  judges.  These 
circuits  are  bounded  by  county  lines  and  in  some  instances 

'  Const.  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  lo;  Judicial  Amendment,  1902. 
>  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  3. 

13 


14  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

one  county  comprises  a  circuit  while  other  circuits  arc  com- 
posed of  two,  three,  or  more  counties.  At  least  three  terms 
of  court  must  be  held  in  each  county  each  year  ^  and  in  some 
counties  it  is  provided  by  law  that  a  greater  number  of  terms 
be  held. 

All  crimes,  except  a  few  petty  ones  which  may  be  tried  by  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  are  tried  in  the  circuit  court,  unless  by 
special  law  the  Legislature  has  established  a  criminal  or  inter- 
mediate court  in  the  county. 

Civil  cases  involving  not  less  than  $50,  exclusive  of  interest 
and  costs,  may  be  instituted  and  tried  in  the  circuit  court, 
and  certain  other  cases  -  irrespective  of  the  amount  involved. 

The  circuit  court  also  tries  cases  appealed  from  justices' 
courts  and  other  inferior  courts  that  may  be  established  by 
law. 

Justices'  Court.  —  The  State  is  composed  of  55  counties 
and  each  is  divided  into  not  fewer  than  three  and  not  more 
than  ten  magisterial  districts  j^resided  over  by  one  ^  or  two 
justices  of  the  peace. 

While  a  justice  must  hold  his  court  within  his  own  magis- 
terial district,  his  jurisdiction  extends  throughout  his  county, 
so  that  cases  arising  any  place  within  his  county  may  be 
brought  before  him. 

Ordinarily  a  justice  may  try  civil  cases  in  which  the  amount 
involved  does  not  exceed  $300  exclusive  of  interest. 

As  was  referred  to  above  under  the  heading,  "  Circuit 
Courts,"  a  justice  may  also  try  persons  for  many  petty 
offenses  and  punish  them  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or  by  both 
fine  and  imprisonment.  He  can  order  the  arrest  of  persons 
charged  with  more  serious  offenses,  and  if  it  seems  probable 
that  they  are  guilty,  he  may  hold  them  to  be  dealt  with  ■  by 
higher  courts. 

1  Const.  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  ii.  «  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  12. 

'  One  if  the  population  is  1200  or  less  and  two  if  it  is  1200  or  more. 


JUDICIAL   DEPARTMENT  1 5 

Suggestive  Questions 

What  is  meant  by  the  judicial  department  of  government  ?  Name  the 
state  courts  in  order  of  importance.  What  is  meant  by  original  juris- 
diction? What  is  meant  by  court  decision?  What  is  meant  by  a 
civil  case?  A  criminal  case?  Two  neighbors  quarrel  over  a  contract ; 
it  is  taken  into  court.  Is  it  a  civil  or  a  criminal  case?  Give  an  ex- 
ample of  a  criminal  case.  What  is  a  jury?  How  is  a  jury  selected? 
Must  its  decision  be  unanimous  in  this  State?  Which  of  the  courts 
can  give  a  decision  by  a  majority  of  its  members  ?  Who  is  the  presiding 
officer  in  the  lowest  court  ?  Who  holds  this  office  in  your  community  ? 
How  many  circuits  in  this  State  ?  How  are  the  judges  selected  ?  Write 
ten  other  questions  suggested  by  Chapter  III. 


CHAPTER   IV 
EXECUTIVE   DEPARTMENT 

The  executive  department  of  government  is  that  branch 
which  executes  or  carries  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  and  the  laws  made  by  the  Legislature,  as  ex- 
plained or  construed  and  applied  by  the  judicial  department. 
Since  the  officers  of  this  department  of  government  are  elected 
by  the  direct  vote  of  the  people,  it  is  important  that  every 
citizen  should  understand  the  powers  and  duties  of  these 
officers. 

While  the  executive  department  of  government  consists, 
as  heretofore  stated,  of  a  Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  State 
Superintendent  of  Free  Schools,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  Attorney- 
General,  and  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  the  chief  execu- 
tive power  is  really  vested  in  the  Governor.^ 

Many  of  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  Governor  are  pre- 
scribed by  the  Constitution,  but  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  subordinate  officers  (Secretary  of  State,  State  Super- 
intendent of  Free  Schools,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  Attorney- 
General  and  Commissioner  of  Agriculture)  are  left  almost 
wholly  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

The  most  important  duties  imposed  upon  the  Governor  by 
the  Constitution  are  as  follows  : 

fi)  To  take  care  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed.^ 

(2)  To  communicate  by  message  with  the  Legislature  at 
the  beginning  of  each  session  of  the  Legislature,  giving 
the  condition  of  the  State  and  recommending  such  measures 

1  Const.  Art.  VII,  Sec.  5.  *  Art.  VII,  Sec.  s- 

16 


EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  17 

as  he  shall  deem  expedient.  He  shall  accompany  his  mes- 
sage with  a  statement  of  all  moneys  received  and  paid  out 
by  him  with  vouchers  therefor ;  and  shall  also  at  the  com- 
mencement of  each  regular  session  j^resent  estimates  of  the 
amount  of  money  required  by  taxation  for  all  purjjoses.^ 

(3)  To  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate  (a  majority  of  all  Senators  elected  concur- 
ring by  yeas  and  nays)  appoint  all  officers  whose  offices  are 
established  by  the  Constitution,  or  shall  be  created  by  law, 
and  whose  appointment  or  election  is  not  otherwise  provided 
for.2 

(4)  To  fill  the  vacancy  in  any  office,  not  elective,  during 
the  recess  of  the  Senate,  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Senate, 
when  he  shall  make  a  nomination  to  such  office  for  the  con- 
sideration of  that  body.^ 

(5)  To  act  as  commander  in  chief  of  the  military  forces  of 
the  State  (except  when  called  into  the  service  of  the  United 
States),  and  he  may  call  out  the  same  to  execute  the  laws, 
suppress  insurrection  and  repel  invasion/ 

(6)  To  approve  or  disapprove  all  bills  passed  by  both 
houses  of  the  Legislature.^ 

(7)  To  fill  by  appointment  the  subordinate  executive  offices 
when  they  shall  become  vacant  by  death,  resignation  or  other- 
wise.® 

Besides  the  duties  imposed  upon  the  Governor  by  the  Con- 
stitution, many  powers  are  given  him  by  that  instrument, 
some  of  the  more  important  of  which  are 

( 1 )  To  convene  the  Legislature  in  extraordinary  session  on 
extraordinary  occasions.^ 

(2)  To  remove  any  officer  whom  he  may  appoint,  in  case 
of  incompetency,   neglect  of  duty,   gross    immorality,    or 

'  Const.  Art.  VII,  Sec.  6.  «  Art.  VII.  Sec.  8.  '  Art.  VII,  Sec.  9. 

*  Art.  VII,  Sec.  12.  '  Art.  VII,  Sec.  14.  •  Art.  VII,  Sec.  17. 

»  Art.  VII,  Sec.  7. 


l8  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

malfeasance  in  office ;  and  he  may  declare  his  office  vacant 
and  fill  the  same  as  herein  provided  in  other  cases  of  vacancy."^ 

(3)  To  remit  fines  and  penalties,  commute  capital  punish- 
ment ;  and  (except  where  the  prosecution  has  been  carried 
on  by  the  House  of  Delegates)  grant  reprieves  and  pardons 
after  conviction.^ 

Aside  from  the  Governor's  constitutional  powers  and 
duties,  the  Legislature  has,  from  time  to  time,  imposed  many 
other  duties  and  conferred  upon  him  many  other  powers 
which  make  the  office  of  Governor  a  very  responsible  and 
arduous  one.  For  instance,  the  Legislature  has  created 
many  subordinate  executive  or  ministerial  offices  not  spe- 
cially provided  for  in  the  Constitution  and  in  most  instances 
has  left  them  to  be  filled  by  the  Governor.  Such  officers 
are  the  State  Tax  Commissioner,  State  Bank  Examiner,  State 
Librarian,  Chief  Inspector  of  Mines,  Game  and  Fish  Warden, 
members  of  the  State  Board  of  Control,  State  Board  of  Re- 
gents, State  School  Book  Commission,  Public  Service  Com- 
mission, etc. 

As  already  stated,  most  of  the  duties  of  the  subordinate 
executive  officers  are  prescribed  by  law  ;  however.  Article  VII, 
Sec.  I  of  the  Constitution  provides  that  they  (those  named 
in  the  Constitution)  shall,  except  the  Attorney-General, 
reside  at  the  seat  of  government  during  their  terms  of  office, 
and  keep  there  the  public  records,  books,  and  papers  pertain- 
ing to  their  respective  offices  ;  and  Sections  1 7  and  1 8  of  the 
same  Article  provide  that  they  shall  keep  an  account  of  all 
the  money  received  and  disbursed  by  them  and  make  a  semi- 
annual report  thereof  to  the  Governor  and  a  general  report 
of  their  offices  to  the  Governor  at  least  ten  days  before  each 
regular  session  of  the  Legislature,  and  report  the  condition, 
management  and  expense  of  their  respective  offices  at  such 
times  as  they  may  be  called  upon  by  the  chief  executive. 

1  Const.  Art.  VII,  Sec.  lo.  'Art.  VII,  Sec.  ii. 


EXECUTIVK   DEPARTMENT  I9 

Among  the  more  important  duties  prescribed  by  law  for 
each  of  the  subordinate  executive  officers  are  the  follo\^^ng : 

Secretary  of  State.  —  (i)  To  keep  the  seal  of  State  and  affix 
the  same  to  such  documents  as  may  be  proper. 

(2)  To  keep  a  journal  of  all  executive  proceedings. 

(3)  To  arrange  and  preserve  all  records  and  papers  belong- 
ing to  the  executive  department,  and  render  to  the  Governor, 
in  the  dispatch  of  executive  business,  such  service  as  he  may 
require. 

State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools.  —  (i)  To  supervise 
all  county  superintendents  of  the  State,  and  see  that  the 
school  system  is  carried  into  effect. 

(2)  To  acquaint  himself  mth  the  various  systems  of  free 
schools  estabHshed  in  other  states  wath  the  object  of  im- 
proving the  schools  of  this  State. 

(3)  To  prescribe  and  cause  to  be  prepared  all  forms  and 
blanks  necessary  in  the  detail  of  the  school  system,  so  as  to 
secure  its  uniform  operation  throughout  the  State. 

(4)  To  act  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  the  School  Fund, 
the  Board  of  PubHc  Works,  the  State  Board  of  Regents,  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  the  State  School  Book  Commis- 
sion, the  State  Printing  Commission,  etc. 

(5)  Appoint  members  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

(6)  Classify  high  schools. 

(7)  Appoint  institute  instructors. 

(8)  Interpret  the  school  law. 

Auditor.  —  (i)  To  prescribe  forms  and  furnish  blanks  to 
all  state  institutions  and  officers  for  keeping  and  reporting 
their  official  accounts. 

(2)  To  issue  checks  or  warrants,  on  the  State  Treasurer, 
in  pursuance  to  law,  for  disbursement  of  State  moneys. 

(3)  To  list  and  keep  account  of  all  lands  belonging  to  or  in 
any  way  coming  into  the  possession  of  the  State. 

(4)  To  serve  as  Insurance  Commissioner. 


20  GOVERNMENT    OF   WEST    VIRGINIA 

Treasurer.  —  (i)  To  keep  an  account  of  all  moneys  paid 
into  the  State  treasury  and  all  moneys  paid  out. 

(2)  To  pay  out  money  upon  the  check  or  warrant  of  the 
Auditor,  after  he  has  satisfied  himself  that  the  warrant  is  in 
accordance  with  appropriations  made  by  the  Legislature. 

Attorney-General.  —  (i)  To  give  his  written  opinion  and 
ad\dce  whenever  required  to  do  so,  in  writing,  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, the  subordinate  executive  officers,  and  certain  other 
officers  as  prescribed  by  law. 

(2)  To  appear  as  counsel  for  the  State  in  all  cases  pending 
in  the  federal  courts,  supreme  court  of  appeals,  or  in  any  case 
in  which  the  State  is  interested  that  is  pending  in  any  other 
court  of  the  State  upon  the  written  request  of  the  Governor. 

(3)  To  defend  actions  and  proceedings  against  any  state 
officer  in  his  official  capacity  when  the  State  is  not  interested 
in  such  case  against,  such  officer  ;  but  should  it  be  interested 
against  such  officer,  he  shall  appear  for  the  State. 

(4)  To  preserve  his  official  opinions  and  publish  the  same 
in  his  biennial  report. 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture.  —  (i)  To  look  after  and 
devise  means  for  advancing  the  agricultural  interests  of  the 
State. 

(2)  To  promote  and  encourage  the  organization  of  societies 
and  organizations  for  the  purpose  of  im]jroving  or  developing 
the  agricultural,  horticultural  and  kindred  interests  of  the 
State. 

(3)  To  prescribe  rules  and  regulations  whereby  the  College 
of  Agriculture  shall  hold  from  time  to  time  farmers'  insti- 
tutes at  such  times  and  places  as  are  likely  to  be  of  benefit 
and  use. 

(4)  To  publish  and  distribute  throughout  the  State  such 
reports,  handbooks  and  bulletins  concerning  agriculture, 
horticulture  and  kindred  subjects  as  in  his  judgment  may  be 
of  value  and  interest  to  the  farmers  of  the  State. 


EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT  21 

(5)  To  investigate  and  report  upon  the  eondition,  kind, 
and  extent  of  mineral  products  in  the  State,  and  as  far  as 
possible  to  ascertain  their  value. 

(6)  To  induce  capital  to  invest  in  agricultural  pursuits  in 
the  State. 

Suggestive  Questions 

What  is  meant  by  the  executive  department  of  government  ?  Write 
the  names  of  as  many  organizations  as  you  can  from  a  baseball  team 
to  a  state  and  give  the  name  of  the  executive  officer  in  each.  What  is 
meant  by  the  Governor's  message  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  direct  vote  ? 
What  is  meant  by  a  primary  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  majority  ?  What 
is  meant  by  a  plurality  ?  When  is  the  Governor  a  part  of  the  legislative 
department  ?  If  a  public  official  should  vacate  his  office,  how  would 
his  place  be  filled  ?  What  is  meant  by  an  insurrection  ?  An  invasion  ? 
Who  would  direct  the  state  troops  in  case  the  militia  were  called  out  ? 
What  is  a  bill?  What  is  a  law?  What  is  a  veto?  If  you  wish  to 
receive  a  report  of  any  of  the  departments  of  the  State,  to  what  officer 
should  you  write  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  State  Seal  ?  What  is  the 
State  Seal  of  this  State  ?  Who  has  dn  ect  charge  of  the  schools  of  the 
State?  To  which  branch  of  the  state  government  does  he  belong? 
Write  at  least  three  questions  concerning  each  of  the  state  officers. 
What  is  meant  by  a  warrant  for  money?  If  the  Governor  desires  a 
legal  opinion,  upon  whom  should  he  call  ?     Would  he  have  to  pay  for  it  ? 


CHAPTER  V 
COUNTY,   DISTRICT,   AND  CITY  OR  VILLAGE  ORGANIZATION 

The  County.  —  While  the  Constitution  (Art.  IX)  provides 
for  a  county  organization,  the  duties  of  the  county  officers 
are  left  largely  to  be  prescribed  by  law.  It  is  provided 
(Const.  Arts.  VII,  IX,  and  XII)  that  the  following  officers 
be  elected  or  appointed  in  each  county  : 

Sheriff  —  elected  ;  term,  four  years. 

Prosecuting  Attorney  —  elected  ;   term,  four  years. 

Surveyor  of  Lands  —  elected  ;  term,  four  years. 

Assessor  ^  —  elected  ;   term,  four  years. 

Clerk  of  the  County  Court  —  elected  ;  term,  six  years. 

Clerk  of  the  Circuit  Court  —  elected  ;   term,  six  years. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools  —  elected  ;  term,  four 
years. 

County  Commissioners  ^  —  elected  ;  term,  six  years. 

Coroner  —  appointed  by  the  County  Court ;  term,  at  pleas- 
ure of  court. 

All  these  officers  must  be  legal  voters  and  reside  in  the 
counties  in  which  elected,  except  the  Prosecuting  Attorney. 
They  enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices  on  the 
first  day  of  January  next  after  election,  except  the  County 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  who  takes  his  office  on  the  first 
day  of  July  next  after  election.  They  are  all  eligible  to  suc- 
ceed themselves  in  office  except  the  sheriff  and  assessor. 
The  sheriff  cannot  serve  two  consecutive  terms,  nor  be  eHgible 

1  Now  provided  by  law  that  there  shall  be  but  one  in  each  county. 
'  These  compose  the  County  Court,  and  they  organize  annually  by  electing  one 
of  their  number  president. 

22 


COUNTY    AND   VILLAGE   ORGANIZATION  23 

to  any  other  office  until  one  year  after  the  expiration  of  the 
term  for  which  he  was  elected.' 

The  county  officers  have  no  legislative  or  judicial  powers  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  term,  but  executive  or  ministerial  only. 

Since  to  detail  the  duties  of  the  county  officers  would  be 
tedious,  only  the  more  important  duties  of  each  officer  will  be 
given  ;  they  are  as  follows  : 

Sheriff.  —  ( i )  To  preserve  the  peace  throughout  his 
county. 

(2)  To  act  as  county  treasurer,  collecting  all  moneys, 
taxes,  etc.,  due  the  county  and  districts  therein  and  dis- 
bursing them  as  provided  by  law. 

(3)  To  attend  all  circuit,  criminal,  intermediate  and 
county  courts  of  his  county  and  act  as  their  ministerial 
officer. 

(4)  To  act  as  jailor ;  but  he  may  with  the  assent  of  the 
County  Court  appoint  another  to  act  in  his  stead. 

(5)  To  furnish  the  Prosecuting  Attorney  information  of 
any  violation  of  law  within  his  county  of  w^hich  he  may  know. 

The  sheriff  may  also  appoint  one  or  more  deputies  to  assist 
him  with  the  assent  of  the  County  Court.  Beginning  Jan- 
uary I,  191 7,  the  sheriff  receives  a  salary  w^hich  varies  with 
the  size  and  wealth  of  the  counties. 

Prosecuting  Attorney.  —  (i)  To  attend  to  all  the  criminal 
business  of  the  State  in  the  county,  and  also  to  all  civil  cases 
of  the  State  in  the  county  at  the  request  of  the  Auditor. 

(2)  To  appear  as  counsel  in  all  cases  in  which  the  county 
is  interested,  and  for  any  county  and  district  officer  in  his 
official  capacity  if  the  State  is  not  interested  against  him. 

(3)  To  act  as  a  member  of  the  county  board  of  health,  etc. 

Beginning  January  i,  191 7,  the  prosecuting  attorney  re- 
ceives a  salary  w'hich  varies  with  the  size  and  wealth  of  the 
counties. 

>  Const.  Art.  IX,  Sec.  3. 


24  GOVERNMENT   OF  WEST   VIRGINIA 

Surveyor  of  Lands.  —  (i)  To  survey  any  land  lying  within 
his  county  on  the  order  of  a  court  and  make  return  of  a  true 
plat  and  certificate  thereof. 

The  County  Court  must  provide  the  Surveyor  of  Lands  a 
desk  in  the  clerk  of  the  County  Court's  office,  unless  the 
Surveyor  sees  fit  to  provide  for  himself  a  separate  office  at 
the  court  house  at  his  own  expense.  His  compensation  con- 
sists entirely  of  fees. 

Assessor.  —  (i)  To  value  the  real  and  personal  property 
of  his  county  once  a  year,  except  the  property  of  the  public- 
service  corporations,  such  as  railroads,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone lines,  etc.,  which  is  valued  by  the  State  Board  of 
Public  Works. 

(2)  To  assess  and  collect  the  poll  tax. 

(3)  To  gather  such  agriculture  statistics  as  may  be  re- 
quired by  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  and  such  other 
information  as  may  be  required  by  law  from  time  to 
time. 

The  salary  of  the  assessor  is  not  less  than  $1000  a  year, 
nor  more  than  $2100,  varying  with  the  voting  population, 
except  in  counties  with  a  population  between  55,000  and 
70,000  the  assessor  shall  be  paid  a  salary  not  to  exceed 
$2500,  and  in  counties  where  the  population  exceeds  70,000, 
the  salary  shall  not  exceed  S3  000. 

Clerk  of  the  County  Court.  —  (i)  To  act  as  clerk  of  the 
County  Court,  keeping  a  record  of  its  acts  and  proceedings, 
issuing  licenses,  taking  bonds,  etc. 

(2)  To  act  as  registrar  and  recorder  of  deeds,  mortgages, 
leases,  wills,  and  all  other  documents  provided  by  law  for 
being  recorded. 

Beginning  January  i,  19 17,  the  County  Clerk  receives  a 
salary  which  varies  wnih  the  size  and  wealth  of  the  counties. 

Clerk  of  the  Circuit  Court.  —  (i)  To  act  as  clerk  to  the 
Circuit  Court,  to  keep  a  record  of  the  acts  and  proceedings 


COUNTY    AND    VILLAGE    ()R(;ANIZATI0N  25 

of  that  court,  and  to  keep  and  preserve  all  i)apcrs  belonging 
to  the  court  or  properly  filed  with  the  court. 

(2)  To  issue  summonses  and  warrants  (subiDoenas)  at  the 
direction  of  the  court  or  jjrosecuting  attorney. 

In  counties  where  criminal  or  intermediate  courts  have 
been  established  it  is  usually  provided  by  law  that  the  clerk 
of  the  circuit  court  shall  also  act  as  clerk  of  these  courts. 
In  a  few  of  our  small  counties,  it  is  jjrovided  by  law  that 
the  offices  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  court  and  the  clerk  of 
the  circuit  court  shall  be  lodged  in  one  and  the  same  person. 
Beginning  January  i,  191 7,  the  clerk  of  the  Circuit  Court 
receives  a  salary  which  varies  with  the  size  and  wealth  of 
the  counties. 

County  Superintendent  of  Schools.  —  (i)  To  visit  the 
schools  of  his  cuunl\-  and  to  ha\-e  general  supervision  of 
them. 

(2)  To  approve  j^lans  for  new  school  buildings  and  the 
purchase  of  apparatus. 

(3)  To  conduct  teachers'  institutes  —  both  county  and 
district. 

(4)  To  act  as  County  Financial  Secretary  for  Boards  of 
Education. 

(5)  To  hold  teachers'  uniform  examinations  and  pupils' 
diploma  examinations.  The  questions  for  these  examinations 
are  prepared  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools ; 
and  teachers'  manuscripts  are  graded  by  a  board  selected  by 
the  vState  Superintendent  of  Free  Schools,  while  the  pupils' 
manuscripts  are  graded  by  the  Count}-  Superintendent  of 
Schools  of  their  respective  counties. 

The  County  Superintendent  is  compensated  by  a  salary 
fixed  by  law,  but  which  depends  upon  the  number  of  schools 
in  his  county. 

County  Commissioners  (County  Court).  —  (i)  To  ad- 
minister the  affairs  of  the  county,  and  in  so  doing  they 


26  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

(a)  levy  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  county  government ; 

(b)  issue  orders  on  the  sheriff  for  the  payment  of  the  county 
expenses ;  (c)  provide  courthouses,  jails,  and  offices  for  the 
county  officers,  etc. ;  {d)  grant  Hcenses  ^  to  run  hotels,  restau- 
rants, boarding  houses,  drug  stores,  etc. ;  (e)  build  roads  and 
bridges  and  keep  them  in  repair. 

(2)  Appoint  guardians,  administrators,  personal  represen- 
tatives, etc.,  and  probate  wills. 

(3)  In  cases  of  contest  to  judge  the  election,  quahfication 
and  returns  of  its  own  members  and  all  county  and  district 
officers,  subject  to  such  regulations,  however,  by  appeal  or 
otherwise,  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law. 

The  compensation  is  $2.00  per  day  for  each  member 
during  the  time  the  court  is  in  session. 

Coroner.  —  (i)  To  inquire  into  the  death  of  persons  be- 
lieved to  have  met  death  by  some  unlawful  act.  In  making 
such  inquiry  he  has  a  jury  of  six  citizens  summoned  to  hear 
and  determine  the:  facts  as  revealed  by  the  evidence  brought 
before  them  touching  the  circumstances  of  death. 

(2)  To  issue  warrants  for  the  arrest  of  persons  whom  the 
coroner's  jury  finds  has  committed  the  unlawful  act  or  acts. 

(3)  To  have  the  dead  bodies  buried  or  sent  to  their  proper 
destination. 

(4)  To  investigate  all  deaths  occurring  in  the  mines  within 
his  county. 

The  coroner  is  compensated  by  $2.00  per  day  while  en- 
gaged as  such  coroner. 

Justice  of  the  Peace.  —  (i)  To  act  as  conservator  of  the 
peace. 

(2)  To  try  minor  offenses  and  punish  the  offender  by  fine 
or  imprisonment  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment. 

'  No  license  may  be  granted  by  the  County  Court  in  any  municipal  city  or  town 
unless  the  applicant  for  such  license  has  first  secured  the  consent  of  the  council 
thereof. 


COUNTY   AND   VILLAGE   ORGANIZATION  27 

(3)  To  try  civil  cases  brought  before  him  unless  the  amount 
in  controversy,  exclusive  of  interest,  exceeds  $300. 

(4)  To  act  as  a  committing  judge  for  the  more  serious 
offenses  against  the  law.  In  acting  in  the  latter  capacity 
he  has  the  supposed  criminal  brought  before  him  and  if, 
after  hearing  such  evidence  as  may  be  produced,  he  believes 
the  accused  probably  guilty  he  holds  him  for  the  action  of 
the  grand  jury  in  the  circuit  court. 

In  the  sense  that  a  justice's  jurisdiction  extends  throughout 
his  county  he  is  a  county  officer,  but  on  the  other  hand  he  is 
only  a  district  officer  in  that  he  is  elected  by  the  voters  of 
his  o\\Ti  district  and  must  hold  his  court  therein. 

Each  magisterial  district  elects  one  justice,  and  if  the 
population  exceeds  1200  two  are  elected. 

Justices  are  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  enter 
upon  the  duties  of  their  office  at  the  same  time  as  other 
county  officers.     A  justice  is  compensated  entirely  by  fees. 

Constable.  —  (i)  To  serve  the  processes  (summonses, 
warrants,  etc.)  of  the  justice. 

(2)  To  act  as  conservator  of  the  peace. 

Like  a  justice,  the  constable  is  a  quasi  county  officer  in 
that  his  jurisdiction  extends  throughout  his  county,  but  is 
elected  in  the  same  manner  as  a  justice.  A  constable  is 
elected  for  each  justice  elected  and  serves  for  a  like  term, 
and  he  is  also  compensated  by  fees. 

The  District.  —  The  district  officers  are : 

Board  of  Education  (composed  of  a  president  and  two 
commissioners) — term,  four  years,  elected. 

Overseer  of  the  Poor  —  appointed  by  the  County  Court ; 
term,  two  years. 

Surveyor  of  Roads  —  appointed  by  the  County  Court ; 
term,  two  years. 

Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  —  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Education ;    term,  one  year. 


28  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 

School  Trustees  —  three  for  each  school  sub-district ;  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board  of  Education  ;  term,  three  years. 

District  Superintendent  of  Schools  (optional  with  Board) 
—  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Education  ;  term,  one  year. 

Truant  Officer  —  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Education ; 
term,  one  year. 

Some  of  the  duties  of  the  district  officers  are  as  follows  : 

Board  of  Education.  —  (i)  To  see  that  school  facihties 
arc  provided  for  all  the  youth  of  the  district,  and  in  so  doing 
(a)  levy  taxes  for  the  support  of  schools  ;  (b)  fix  the  length 
of  the  school  term  within  certain  limits  provided  by  law ; 

(c)  establish  schools,  build  schoolhouses   and  equip   them; 

(d)  through   trustees  furnish  fuel  and  other  supplies,  hire 
janitors,  teachers,  etc. 

The  members  of  the  Board  of  Education  are  paid  $2.00 
pe-  day  while  engaged,  but  the  president  is  limited  to  fifteen 
da^'S  and  the  commissioners  to  ten  days  in  any  one  year. 

Overseer  of  the  Poor.  —  (i)  To  prevent  begging  in  pubHc 
places. 

(2)  To  investigate  cases  of  poverty  and  give  assistance  if 
found  worthy  or  convey  such  paupers  to  the  county  in- 
firmary or  poor  farm. 

(3)  To  see  that  persons  who  die  are  given  a  decent  burial 
when  they  are  not  possessed  of  enough  means  to  bear  that 
expense. 

(4)  To  see  that  paupers  coming  into  his  district  are  trans- 
ported to  the  county  or  state  where  they  have  a  legal  settle- 
ment. 

The  overseer  is  compensated  by  the  county  court,  but 
must  not  exceed  $1 .50  per  day  while  actually  engaged. 

Surveyor  of  Roads. ^  —  (i)  To  cause  to  be  built  and  opened 
new  roads  and  bridges  under  the  direction  of  the  county  court. 

1  Instead  of  appointing  a  surveyor  of  ro'ids  the  county  court  may  appoint  a 
road  engineer  for  tlie  whole  county. 


COUNTY   AND   VILLAGE   ORGANIZATION  29 

(2)  To  superintend  the  county  roads  and  bridges  in  his 
district,  and  cause  them  to  be  kept  in  good  order  and  repair 
and  unobstructed. 

The  Road  Surveyor's  compensation  is  fixed  by  the  county 
court,  but  must  not  exceed  $2.50  per  day  while  engaged. 

Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education.  —  (i)  To  record  the 
acts  and  proccccHngs  of  the  Board. 

(2)  To  receive  teachers'  reports  and  issue  orders  for  their 
salaries. 

(3)  To  audit  expense  bills  and  issue  orders  for  the  same. 

(4)  To  make  such  reports  to  the  County  Superintendent 
of  Schools  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  prescribed. 

(5)  To  keep  all  jjapers  belonging  to  the  Board  and  all 
evidence  of  title  to  school  property,  etc. 

The  Secretary's  salary  is  fixed  by  the  Board,  but  cannot 
exceed  Si 5.00  per  year;  however,  he  receives  $10  additional 
for  making  a  report  to  the  County  Superintendent,  and  if 
the  district  furnishes  free  textbooks  he  receives  $50  more 
for  extra  work  in  handling  the  books,  etc. 

School  Trustees.  —  (i)  To  see  that  the  school  property  of 
their  subdistrict  is  in  sanitary  and  otherwise  suitable  con- 
dition for  school  use. 

(2)  To  hire  janitors  and  teachers  and  certify  their  time 
to  the  Board.     Trustees  to  servo  without  compensation. 

District  Superintendent  of  Schools.  —  The  duties  of  this 
officer  are  not  very  definitely  prescribed  by  law,  but  are 
left  to  be  detennined  largely  by  the  Board  of  Education. 
Each  Board  therefore  prescribes  the  duties  of  its  Superin- 
tendent and  fixes  his  salary. 

Truant  Officer.  —  To  see  that  the  compulsor}-  school 
attendance  law  is  enforced. 

Justices  of  the  peace,  constables,  presidents  of  Board  of 
Education,  school  commissioners,  and  overseers  of  the  poor 
must  be  legal  voters  of  their  respective  districts  and  reside 


30 


GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST   VIRGINIA 


therein.  Surveyors  of  roads  must  reside  in  their  respective 
districts  and  must  not  be  over  70  years  of  age.  School 
trustees  must  be  residents  of  the  subdistrict  they  serve. 
All  other  district  officers  are  not  required  to  have  any  vot- 
ing or  resident  qualifications. 

City  or  Village.  —  The  Constitution,  Art.  VI,  Sec.  39, 
forbids  the  incorporating  or  chartering  of  any  city  or  village 
of  a  population  of  less  than  two  thousand  by  special  legis- 
lative act,  and  the  Legislature  has  therefore  enacted  a 
general  town  or  village  incorporation  law  under  which  all 
our  small  towns  or  villages  may  be  incorporated.  Certain 
requirements  are  laid  down  and  their  fulfillment  by  a  com- 
munity wishing  to  incorporate  as  a  town  or  village  is  passed 
upon  by  the  circuit  court  and  if  found  regular  and  correct 
the  court  orders  the  clerk  of  the  court  to  issue  a  charter. 

It  is  provided  by  law  that  the  officers  of  such  corporations 
shall  consist  of  a  mayor,  recorder,  and  at  least  five  council- 
men  elected  by  and  from  among  the  legal  voters  of  the 
corppration,  and  of  a  sergeant,  an  assessor,  and  a  superin- 
tendent of  streets  and  alleys  appointed  by  the  council. 
The  elective  officers  serve  one  year  and  the  appointive 
officers  at  the  pleasure  of  the  council,  and  the  compensation 
of  each  is  fixed  by  the  council.    The  sergeant  acts  as  treasurer. 

In  the  Mayor  is  vested  all  three  functions  of  government. 
While  he  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  town,  he  also 
has  the  power  of  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  is  the  town  or 
corporation  judge,  and  by  virtue  of  having  a  vote  in  council 
meetings  he  helps  to  make  the  laws  for  the  town. 

The  Recorder  has  charge  of  all  the  corporation  records 
and  papers  and  records  the  proceedings  of  the  council.  He, 
too,  has  a  vote  in  council  meetings,  and  when  the  mayor  is 
out  of  town,  or  is  sick,  or  the  office  of  mayor  is  vacant,  he 
acts  as  mayor. 

The  Council  is  the  legislative  branch  of  the  town  govern- 


COUNTY    AND    VILLAGE    ORGAN IZATIUN  3 1 

ment.  It  passes  laws,  called  ordinances,  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  town  where  it  is  not  provided  by  state  law. 

In  this  capacity  it  levies  taxes,  provides  streets,  alleys, 
pavement,  sewers,  Hght,  water,  etc.,  and  so  orders  the  town 
that  many  people  may  live  together  as  close  neighbors  with- 
out infringing  on  the  rights  or  endangering  the  health  of 
each  other. 

The  Sergeant  is  the  chief  police  officer  of  the  town,  and 
the  Superintendent  of  Streets  supervises  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  streets  and  alleys. 

Usually  soon  after  a  to\\Ti  or  \'illage  reaches  a  population 
of  2000,  it  appHes  to  the  Legislature  for  a  special  incorpora- 
tion act  or  charter  and  this  has  resulted  in  no  two  cities 
having  exactly  the  same  fonn  of  government  as  have  our 
counties,  districts  and  villages.  However,  there  is  a  similar- 
ity in  that  all  have  a  chief  executive  officer  usually  called  a 
mayor  and  a  legislative  body  usually  called  a  council.  In  a 
few  of  our  cities  the  council  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower 
branch  as  docs  our  Legislature,  but  this  is  not  usual.  Cities 
are  usually  divided  into  districts  called  wards,  from  each  of 
which  is  elected  one  or  more  councilmen.  Some  cities  have 
bodies  such  as  boards  of  public  works,  which  must  concur 
with  the  council  before  important  improvements  can  be 
made. 

Instead  of  the  above  form  of  government  a  commission 
form  of  government  is  now  being  granted  to  some  of  our 
cities,  but  as  yet  this  form  of  government  in  this  state  is  in 
its  infancy. 

Suggestive  Questions 

How  many  of  the  county  officers  do  you  know  ?  Which  is  the  most 
important  of  the  county  offices  ?  To  which  department  of  government 
does  each  belong?  Which  ones  cannot  succeed  themselves  in  office? 
Read  carefully  the  duties  of  each  one.  If  a  man  were  being  tried  for 
stealing  a  horse,  who  would  represent  the  State?     What  is  meant  by 


32  GOVERNMENT   OF   WEST    VIRGINIA 

plaintifl  ?  What  is  meant  by  defendant  ?  What  is  meant  by  counsel  ? 
If  y^ou  wanted  to  find  out  who  owned  a  piece  of  land,  where  would 
you  go  for  the  information  ?  If  you  wanted  to  find  out  whether  there 
was  a  mortgage  on  a  piece  of  property,  where  would  you  go  for  the 
information  ?  What  is  a  mortgage  ?  If  you  wanted  to  find  out  whether 
the  taxes  had  been  paid  or  not,  where  would  you  go  for  the  information  ? 
What  is  a  tax?  Do  you  believe  in  taxes?  What  is  meant  by  real 
property  ?  By  personal  property  ?  What  is  a  license  ?  A  bond  ?  A 
guardian  ?  A  will  ?  How  large  must  a  village  be  in  order  to  be  made 
a  city  ?  Name  some  advantages  of  having  a  city  form  of  government. 
How  does  a  village  become  a  city?  What  is  meant  by  a  commission 
form  of  government  ? 


CHAPTER   VI 
EDUCATION 

The  State  has  two  distinct  functions  to  perform,  namely, 
to  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  to  protect  the  individual 
in  his  rights.  The  general  welfare  of  the  State  is  promoted 
by  its  educational  institutions.  All  but  private  and  de- 
nominational schools  are  supported  by  the  State. 

State  University.  —  The  University  has  at  least  two 
distinct  provinces.  First,  to  investigate,  define,  and  make 
clear  the  latest  thought  and  conclusions  in  the  different 
fields  of  human  knowledge.  Second,  to  give  instruction 
to  young  men  and  women  who  will  apply  it  in  the  various 
fields  of  activity  throughout  the  State.  It  requires  four 
years  beyond  the  regular  high  school  course  to  complete 
a  university  course. 

Normal  Schools.  —  The  function  of  the  Normal  School  is 
to  prepare  persons  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  There 
are  three  distinct  phases  of  the  work.  First,  to  secure  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught.  Second,  to  get 
a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  mind  and  the  laws  of  teaching, 
and  the  proper  methods  of  instruction.  Third,  the  testing 
of  the  knowledge  and  methods  in  the  training  school.  It 
requires  two  years  beyond  the  high  school  to  complete  the 
normal  school  course. 

State  and  Local  High  Schools.  —  To  give  proper  prepara- 
tion for  intelligently  pursuing  a  university  or  normal  school 
course,  and  to  give  a  general  education  to  those  who  do  not 
care  to  continue  their  study  further.     A  high  school  educa- 

33 


34  GOVERNMENT   OF    WEST    VIRGINIA 

tion  is  required  to  enter  the  University  or  any  advanced 
school  of  education. 

Common  Schools.  —  To  put  the  great  mass  of  boys  and 
girls  in  possession  of  the  common  terms  of  life,  with  clear 
and  accurate  meanings,  so  that  they  can  exchange  ideas  and 
transact  business  through  a  common  understanding  of  these 
common  things.  Or,  to  express  it  in  another  way,  to  put 
into  the  common  possession  of  everyone  the  simple  facts 
of  our  civilization. 

Private  and  Denominational  Schools.  —  Private  and  de- 
nominational schools  may  be  secondary  schools,  colleges, 
or  universities,  and  as  such  they  perform  the  same  character 
of  work  as  is  performed  in  the  state  schools  of  the  same 
name  and  grade. 

Suggestive  Questions 

Should  public  schools  be  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  State? 
State  Normal  Schools?  The  University?  Give  reasons  for  your 
answer.  Give  two  reasons  why  schools  are  necessary.  Is  higher 
education  more  necessary  now  for  the  average  person  than  it  was  fifty 
years  ago  ?  Why  ?  Are  lawyers  and  doctors  as  well  educated  now  as 
they  were  at  the  time  Webster  studied  law  ?  Where  would  you  go  in 
the  State  if  you  wanted  to  study  law?  If  you  wanted  to  prepare  for 
teaching  ?  If  you  wanted  to  be  an  engineer  ?  In  which  school  could  a 
farmer  get  most  valuable  help  ?  Should  a  druggist  receive  a  license  ? 
Where  could  he  study?  vShould  every  one  be  permitted  to  practice 
medicine  who  desires  to  do  so?  Do  you  believe  that  every  boy  and 
girl  should  have  at  least  a  high  school  education?  Which  would  be 
the  better  investment  for  you,  to  take  a  short  crowded  course,  or  a 
longer  thorough  course  at  double  cost  ?  In  what  ways  could  your  own 
home  school  be  improved  ?  Why  is  it  desirable  that  all  the  men  and 
women  of  the  State  should  possess  a  large  amount  of  the  same  kind 
of  information  ?  If  all  boys  and  girls  in  America  could  study  the  same 
history  and  geography  and  memorize  the  same  poems  and  learn  the 
same  facts  about  the  great  things  of  life,  what  would  be  the  result  to 
the  country  ?     Is  it  desirable  that  they  should  ? 


TABLES 


EDUCATION 


Name 
West  Virginia  University 
West  Virginia  Trade  School 
Branch  of  West  Virginia  University 
Marshall  College  Normal 
Fairmont  Normal 
West  Liberty  Normal 
Shepherd  Normal  College 
Glenville  Normal 
Concord  Normal 

West  Virginia  Collegiate  Institute 
Bluefield  Colored  Institute 


Location 
Morgantown 
Montgomery 
Keyser 
Huntington 
Fairmont 
West  Liberty 
Shepherdstown 
Glenville 
Athens 
Institute 
Bluefield 


STATE   INSTITUTIONS 

West  Virginia  Asylum  Huntington 

West  Virginia  Hospital  for  Insane  Weston 

Second  Hospital  for  Insane  Spencer 

West  Virginia  Penitentiary  Moundsville 

West  Virginia  Reform  vSchool  Pruntytovvn 

West  Virginia  Industrial  Home  for  Girls  Salem 

West  Virginia  Schools  for  Deaf  and  Blind  Romney 

Miners'  Hospital  No.  i  Welch 

Miners'  Hospital  No.  2  McKendree 

Miners'  Hospital  No.  3  Fairmont 

Tuberculosis  Sanitarium  Not  yet  located 


35 


36  GOVERNMENT    OF    WEST    VIRGINIA 

GOVERNORS 

From  To 

Arthur  Ingraham  Boreman  ....  June  20,  1863  —  Feb.   26,  1869 

Daniel  D.  T.  Farnsworth     ....  Feb.  27,  1869  —  Mar.    3,1869 

William  Erskine  Stevenson  .     .     .     .  Mar.    4,  1869  —  Mar.    3,  1871 

John  Jeremiah  Jacobs Mar.    4,  1871  —  Mar.    3,  1877 

Henry  Mason  Mathews Mar.    4,  1877  —  Mar.    3,  1881 

Jacob  Beeson  Jackson Mar.    4,  1881  —  Mar.    3,  1885 

Emanuel  Willis  Wilson Mar.    4,1885  —  Feb.      5,1890 

Aretus  Brooks  Fleming Feb.     6,  1890 — Mar.    3,  1893 

William  Ale.x.  MacCorkle     ....  Mar.    4,1893 — Mar.    3,1897 

George  W.  Atkinson Mar.    4,  1897  —  Mar.    3,  1901 

A.  B.  White Mar.    4,  1901  —  Mar.    3,  1905 

William  M.  O.  Dawson Mar.    4,  1905  —  Mar.    3,  1909 

William  E.  Glasscock Mar.    4,  1909  —  Mar.    3,  1913 

Henry  D.  Hatfield Mar.    4,  1913  —  Mar.    3,  1917 

John  J.  Comwell Mar.    4,  19 17  — 

STATE    SUPERINTENDENTS    OF   FREE    SCHOOLS 

William  R.  White June  20,  1863  —  Mar.    3,1869 

H.  A.  G.  Ziegler Mar.    4,  1869  — Feb.    17,1870 

Alvin  D.  Williams Feb.  19,1870 — Mar.    3,1871 

Charles  S.  Lewis IMar.    4,1871  —  Dec.  31,1872 

William  K.  Pendleton Jan.     1,1873  —  Mar.    3,1873 

Benjamin  W.  Byrne Mar.    4,1873  —  Mar.    3,1877 

Waiiam  K.  Pendleton Mar.    4,1877  —  Mar.    3,1881 

Bernard  L.  Butcher Mar.    4,1881  —  Mar.    3,1885 

Benjamin  S.  Morgan Mar.    4,1885  —  Mar.    3,1893 

Virgil  A.  Lewis        Mar.    4,1893  —  Mar.    3,1897 

J.  Russell  Trotter Mar.    4,1897  —  Mar.    3,1901 

Thomas  C.  Miller Mar.    4,  1901  —  Mar.    3,  1909 

M.  P.  Shawkey Mar.    4,  1909 — 


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